1. BEOWULF An Introduction

2. OVERVIEW Beowulf was first translated from Old English to Latin in 1815 and was not published in full in Modern English until 1837, many centuries after it was composed. Since then, the poem has been translated many times by scholars and poets. This process of translation is always subjective one because a translation reflects the interpretive choices made by the translator. The translator may not be able to include everything about the word choice, grammar, and poetic style of the original work, and therefore must decide, which, if any characteristics of the original, to include. For example, the first word of Beowulf “Hwaet” does not have a specific translation in modern English, so translators think about what the word’s literary function in in the poem as they look for a suitable translation.

3. THE STORY Beowulf tells the story of the noble warrior for whom the poem is named. Beowulf, who becomes King of the Geats, fights three battles in the epic: He fights and kills the monster Grendel He fights and kills the monster Grendel He fights and kills Grendel’s mother He fights and kills Grendel’s mother He fights and kills a dragon and then dies from his own wounds He fights and kills a dragon and then dies from his own wounds The epic is divided into two parts. The first section tells of Beowulf’s adventures as a young warrior who fights Grendel and Grendel’s Mother. The second section tells of Beowulf’s days as the ruler of the Geats. In this concluding section, Beowulf dies a hero’s death, battling a dragon to protect his own kingdom. Although the poem is written in Old English, the events in the story take place in Scandinavia, not medieval England. Beowulf’s kingdom would have been in what is southern Sweden today. He travels to Heorot, which is present day Denmark to help the Hrothgar and his warriors battle Grendel and Grendel’s Mother. The events take place during the Sixth century, based on historical fact that Hygelac’s raid on the Franks dates to around 520 CE.

5. THE MANUSCRIPT Beowulf exists in a single Anglo-Saxon manuscript, now owned by the British Library in London. The manuscript was originally created by two scribes and most people believe it dates to about 1000 CE. The manuscript containing the poem was damaged in a fire in 1731, leaving pages burned and brittle. The pages were pasted into frames in 1845 to protect them. Because of damage from the fire, age, and the application of the frames, parts of the pages have become obscured. Through the use of ultraviolet lighting, researchers have been able to reveal some of this hidden information as well as to learn more about the manuscript’s creation. Anglo-Saxon manuscripts were written on specially treated animal skins. Four or five sheets were folded in half to create eight to ten pages. After the pages were prepared, scribes copied the text, writing on the pages with ink that was typically made from oak-gall and lamp-black. Some manuscripts were also decorated with colorful paints made from various minerals such as gold or lapis.

6. THE SIGNIFICANCE Beowulf is the longest of the many surviving poems written in Old English, and it is the earliest surviving English epic. Various elements of Beowulf were probably passed down through oral tradition by storytellers, or scops, who provided entertainment and an oral history for their listeners by telling stories about kings and warriors. At some point, the story was written down, but there are still many mysteries about the text. There is no way for us to know whether the epic was the product of one poet or if the story as we have it comes complete from oral traditions (many poets over time). Beowulf is over 3000 lines long and was written in unrhymed, four-beat alliterative lines, a style called alliterative verse. The title that we use for the poem was added later by scholars wince there is no title included in the manuscript.

7. LANGUAGE English is divided into three different periods English is divided into three different periods English is divided into three different periods English is divided into three different periods First page of Beowulf First page of Beowulf First page of Beowulf First page of Beowulf Old English Alphabet Old English Alphabet Old English Alphabet Old English Alphabet

8. HEAR THE DIFFERENCE Old English Beowulf text Old English Beowulf text Old English Beowulf text Old English Beowulf text Hear what it sounds like Hear what it sounds like Hear what it sounds like Hear what it sounds like

9. THE POETICS OF BEOWULF From “The Age of Anxiety” by W. H. Auden For the others, like me, there is only the flash For the others, like me, there is only the flash Of negative knowledge, the night when, drunk, one Staggers to the bathroom and stares in the glass To meet one’s madness, when what mother said seems Such darling rubbish and the decent advice Of the liberal weeklies as lost an art As peasant pottery, for plainly it is not. To the Cross or to Clarté or to Common Sense To the Cross or to Clarté or to Common Sense Our passions pray but to primitive totems As absurd as they are savage; science or no science, It is Bacchus or the Great Boyg or Baal-Peor, Fortune’s Ferris-wheel or the physical sound Of our own names which they actually adore as their Ground and goal. Alliteration: Alliteration is the repetition of stressed sounds, particularly consonants from the beginning of words or syllables. Poetically, alliteration can has a similar function as rhyme. An example of alliteration is the tongue-twister "She sells seashells by the sea shore."

10. THE POETICS OF BEOWULF Kenning Kennings are a special form of compounding that are metaphoric in meaning. For example, the kenning banhus (ban + hus), literally "bone- house," refers to the human body; hronrad (hron + rad), literally "whale's road," refers to the sea; and rodores candel, literally "sky's candle," refers to the sun. Compounding Old English poetry makes extensive use of compounding, the combining of two words to make a new word. An example is feorhseoc, literally "life- sick" (feorh = life, seoc = sick), which can be translated as mortally wounded. A more common example can be found in the first line of Beowulf: Gar-Dena, literally "Spear-Danes" (gar = spear, Dena = Danes). Compounding may be done to meet the needs of the alliterative meter, as part of a formula, or to make a new word.

11. MODERN ENGLISH BEOWULF PASSAGE Modern English Beowulf Passage Handout So. The Spear-Danes in days gone by and the kings who ruled them had courage and greatness. We have heard of those princes’ heroic campaigns. We have heard of those princes’ heroic campaigns. There was Shield Sheafson, scourge of many tribes, a wrecker of mead-benches, rampaging among foes. This terror of the hall-troops had come far. A founding to start with, he would flourish later on as his powers waxed and his worth was proved. In the end each clan on the outlying coasts beyond the whale-road had to yield to him and begin to pay tribute. That was one good king. Afterwards a boy-child was born to Shield, a cub in the yard, a comfort sent by God to that nation. He knew what they had tholed, by God to that nation. He knew what they had tholed, the long times and troubles they’d come through without a leader; without a leader; Translation from Heaney, Seamus. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000. What alliteration or kennings do you notice?

12. ELEMENTS Epic Poetry: a long narrative poem written in an elevated style which celebrates the deeds of a legendary hero or god Epic Poetry: a long narrative poem written in an elevated style which celebrates the deeds of a legendary hero or god Epic Hero: superhuman hero or god of an epic Epic Hero: superhuman hero or god of an epic Scop: composers and storytellers who travelled from court to court. They were entertainers of Anglo-Saxon time. They were expected to know a broad repertoire of tales and be able to compose tales in tribute to the patrons who financed them Scop: composers and storytellers who travelled from court to court. They were entertainers of Anglo-Saxon time. They were expected to know a broad repertoire of tales and be able to compose tales in tribute to the patrons who financed them

13. ELEMENTS Comitatus Comitatus Germanic code of loyalty Germanic code of loyalty Thanes, or warriors, swore loyalty to their king, for whom they fought and whom they protected. In return the king was expected to be generous with gifts of treasure and land. The king also protected his thanes. Thanes, or warriors, swore loyalty to their king, for whom they fought and whom they protected. In return the king was expected to be generous with gifts of treasure and land. The king also protected his thanes. Kings were highly praised for their generosity and hospitality. Warriors were expected to be brave, courageous, and loyal. Their reputation for such qualities was very important. Kings were highly praised for their generosity and hospitality. Warriors were expected to be brave, courageous, and loyal. Their reputation for such qualities was very important. “Man-payment” “Man-payment” The practice of paying a slain man’s family to atone for the deed and to prevent them from taking revenge against the manslayer. The practice of paying a slain man’s family to atone for the deed and to prevent them from taking revenge against the manslayer.

14. CHARACTERS Beowulf (Geat) Beowulf (Geat) Fights Grendel, Grendel’s Mother, and a fire breathing dragon Fights Grendel, Grendel’s Mother, and a fire breathing dragon Boasts that he is the strongest, ablest warrior around. Boasts that he is the strongest, ablest warrior around. In his youth he personifies all of the best values of the hero culture. In his old age he is a wise and effective ruler. In his youth he personifies all of the best values of the hero culture. In his old age he is a wise and effective ruler. Hrothgar (Dane) Hrothgar (Dane) Enjoys military success and prosperity until Grendel terrorizes his realm Enjoys military success and prosperity until Grendel terrorizes his realm Represents a different kind of leadership from Beowulf. He is a father figure and a model for the type of king Beowulf wishes to become. Represents a different kind of leadership from Beowulf. He is a father figure and a model for the type of king Beowulf wishes to become.

15. CHARACTERS Grendel Grendel A demon, descended from Cain, who preys on Hrothgar’s warriors in the king’s mead-hall, Heorot. A demon, descended from Cain, who preys on Hrothgar’s warriors in the king’s mead-hall, Heorot. His existence is part of the retribution enacted by God for Cain’s murder of Abel. His existence is part of the retribution enacted by God for Cain’s murder of Abel. Grendel fits solidly within the vengeance that governs the poem. Grendel fits solidly within the vengeance that governs the poem. Grendel’s Mother Grendel’s Mother She is an unnamed hag who possesses fewer human qualities than Grendel, but her terrorization of Heorot is explained by her desire for vengeance. She is an unnamed hag who possesses fewer human qualities than Grendel, but her terrorization of Heorot is explained by her desire for vengeance. The Dragon The Dragon An ancient, powerful serpent who guards a horde of treasure in a hidden mound. An ancient, powerful serpent who guards a horde of treasure in a hidden mound.

16. OTHER DANES Shield Sheafson: a mythical founder who inaugurates a long line of Danish rulers and embodies the Danish tribes’ highest values of heroism and leadership. The poem opens with a brief accound of his rise form orphan to warrior king. Shield Sheafson: a mythical founder who inaugurates a long line of Danish rulers and embodies the Danish tribes’ highest values of heroism and leadership. The poem opens with a brief accound of his rise form orphan to warrior king. Beow: The second king listed, the son of Shield Sheafson, and the father of Halfdane. The narrator presents Beow as a gift from God to people in need of a leader. Beow: The second king listed, the son of Shield Sheafson, and the father of Halfdane. The narrator presents Beow as a gift from God to people in need of a leader. Halfdane: father of Hrothgar, Heorgar, Halgo, and an unnamed daughter who married the king of the Swedes. Halfdane: father of Hrothgar, Heorgar, Halgo, and an unnamed daughter who married the king of the Swedes. Wealhtheow: Hrothgar’s Wife Wealhtheow: Hrothgar’s Wife

17. MORE DANES Unferth: A Danish warrior who is jealous of Beowulf. He is unable or unwilling to fight Grendel, proving himself inferior to Beowulf. Unferth: A Danish warrior who is jealous of Beowulf. He is unable or unwilling to fight Grendel, proving himself inferior to Beowulf. Hrethric: Hrothgar’s eldest son who stands to inherit the Danish throne. Beowulf offers support to the prospective king. Hrethric: Hrothgar’s eldest son who stands to inherit the Danish throne. Beowulf offers support to the prospective king. Hrothmund: the second son of Hrothgar Hrothmund: the second son of Hrothgar Hrothulf: Hrothgar’s nephew Hrothulf: Hrothgar’s nephew Aeschere: Hrothgar’s advisor Aeschere: Hrothgar’s advisor

18. OTHER GEATS Hygelac: Beowulf’s uncle Hygelac: Beowulf’s uncle Hygd: Hygelac’s wife Hygd: Hygelac’s wife Wiglaf: A young kinsmen and retainer of Beowulf who helps him in the fight against the dragon while all the other warriors run away. Wiglaf adheres to the heroic code better than other retainers of Beowulf, making him a suitable successor to Beowulf. Wiglaf: A young kinsmen and retainer of Beowulf who helps him in the fight against the dragon while all the other warriors run away. Wiglaf adheres to the heroic code better than other retainers of Beowulf, making him a suitable successor to Beowulf. Ecgtheow: Beowulf’s father Ecgtheow: Beowulf’s father King Hrethel: the Geatish King who took Beowulf in as a ward after the death of Ecgtheow King Hrethel: the Geatish King who took Beowulf in as a ward after the death of Ecgtheow Breca: Beowulf’s childhood friend Breca: Beowulf’s childhood friend