1. Chapter 8 Language in Use Course: Linguistics Lecturer: Phoenix Xu

2. Table of Contents 8.1 Speech act theory 8.1.1 Performative and constative 8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act 8.2 The theory of conversational implicature 8.2.1 The cooperative principle 8.2.2 Violation of the maxims 8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature

3. SPEAKER’S MEAING UTTERANCE MEANING or CONTEXTUAL MEANING E.g. “You are a fool.”

4. PRAGMATICS( 语用学 ): a branch of linguistics which studies the relationship between natural language expressions and theirs uses in specific situations. Pragmatic= meaning- semantics

5. 8.1 Speech act theory Austin, J. L.1975[1962]. How to do Things with Words[M]. 2 nd ed. Oxford: Charendon Press.

6. 8.1.1 Performative and constative PERFORMATIVES ( 施为句 ): the utterance of the sentences is, or is a part of, the doing of an action. Performative verbs

7. Ex. 8-1 a. I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth. b. I bequeath my watch to my brother. c. I promise to finish it in time. d. I declare the meeting open.

8. CONSTATIVES( 表述句 ): a description of what speaker is doing at the time of speaking Ex. 8-2 I pour some liquid into the tube.

9. FELICITY CONDITIONS ( 合适条件 ) for performatives A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and (ii) the relevant participants and circumstances must be appropriate. B. The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely. C. Very often, (i) the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions, and (ii) must follow it up with actions as specified.

10. Disadvantages of felicity conditions  There might be cases that one does not need a conventional procedure to produce a performative. E.g. I promise. I gave my word for it.

11.  The so-called constatives may also be infelicitous. E.g. a. The present King of France is bald. b. I bequeath my watch to my brother.

12. Question: How to distinguish performatives from constatives?

13.  the grammatical and lexical criteria Typical performatives: first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice, and performative verbs Counter examples: a. No smoking. b. You did it. (Rather than “I find you guilty.”)

14.  The expressive state is used for doing things. E.g. I state that I’m alone responsible.

15. 8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act To say something is to do something. (Austin 1975[1962] )

16.  LOCUTIONARY ACT ( 发话行为 ): the act performed when we speak, i.e. the act of producing a sound, word or sentence E.g. “Morning!”

17.  ILLOCUTIONARY ACT( 行事行为 ): the act performed by saying something Note: ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE The speaker’s meaning, contextual meaning, or extra meaning, “ 言外之意 ”

18.  PERLOCUTIONARY ACT( 取效行为 ): the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer

19. 8.2 The theory of conversational implicature

20. 8.2.1 The cooperative principle COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE (CP) “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”(Grice 1975:45).

21. IMPLICATURE( 含义 ): the implied meaning

22.  QUANTITY 1. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange). 2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

23.  QUALITY Try to make your contribution on that is true. 1. Do not say what you believe to be false. 2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence

24.  RELATION Be relevant.

25.  MANNER Be perspicuous. 1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity. 3. Be brief. 4. Be orderly.

26. 8.2.2 Violation of the maxims  Violation of Quality maxims  Example 1: violation of the first maxim of Quantity Recommend letter “Dear Sir, Mr. X’s command of English is excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular. Yours, etc.”

27.  Example 2: Conflict of Quantity maxim and Quality maxim A: Where does he live? B: Somewhere in the north of the city.

28.  Example 3: violation of the second maxim of Quantity a. Boys are boys. b. Wars are wars.

29.  Violation of Quality maxims  Example 1: violation of the first Quality maxim a. He is made of iron. b. Every nice girl loves a sailor. “It may be the case that…”, or “I’m not sure but…”

30.  Example 2: violation of the second Quality maxim A: Where is X? B: He’s gone to the library. He said so when he left.

31.  Violation of Relation maxim Example A: “Mrs. X is an old bag.” B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?

32.  Violation of Manner maxims  Example 1: violation of “avoid obscurity” A: Let’s get the kids something. B: Okey, but I veto I-C-E C-R-E-A-M-S.

33.  Example 2: violation of “avoid ambiguity” “Never seek to tell thy love, Love that never told can be.”

34.  Example 3: violation of “brief” A: Miss X sang “Home sweet home”. B: Miss X produced a series of sounds that corresponded closely with the score of “Home sweet home”.

35. 8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature (i)CALCULABILITY( 可推导性 ) (ii)CANCELLABILITY( 可取消性 ) (iii)NON-DETACHABILITY( 不可分离性 ) (iv)NON-CONVENTIONALITY( 非规约性 )