1. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Chapter 10: Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood

2. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Physical Changes and Health

3. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. During middle and late childhood: –Growth averages 2-3 inches per year –Weight gain averages 5-7 lbs each year –“Baby fat” decreases –Muscle mass and strength gradually increase –Less noticeable is ossification of bones –Fine motor skills improve –Myelination of CNS increases Boys have a greater number of muscle cells and are stronger than girls.

4. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Most noticeable physical changes are in head and waist circumference, and leg length in relation to body. By age 10-12, manipulative writing skills show (like adults) and ability to master complex skills. Girls usually outperform boys in fine motor skills. Today, too much time is spent watching TV, on computers, and playing video games. Children need more exercise.

5. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1979198919991969 Percent of children involved in daily physical education programs 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 Fig. 10.1 Percentage of U.S. Children in Daily Physical Education Programs from 1969 to 1999

6. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. More children become involved in sports every year; communities and schools are offering more sports Sports participation is positive and negative with concerns about pressure to win and exploitation Middle and late childhood –Is usually a time of excellent health –Motor vehicle accidents are most common cause of severe injury –Cancer is 2nd leading cause of death –Most common child cancer is leukemia

7. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Fig. 10.2 Leukemia Brain Lymphomas Neuroblastoma Bone Kidney Muscle Other 12% 39% 15% 10% 7% 6% 5% Types of Cancer in Children

8. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Obesity: –Prevalent in children, mostly ages 6 to 11 –6-year-old has 25% risk of being obese adult –12-year-old has 75% risk of being obese adult –Linked to lack of exercise –A risk factor for other medical and psychological problems Context in which child eats can influence eating habits and weight Low self-esteem, depression, and teasing by peers are common

9. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Children with Disabilities

10. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Approximately 10% of U.S. children have a disability (learning disability, mental retardation, serious emotional disturbance) and receive special education or related services. –More than 40% of these have learning disabilities Learning disability has 3 criteria: –Exclusionary criteria –IQ–achievement discrepancy –Specificity of learning problem

11. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. U.S. Children with a Disability Who Receive Special Education Services (2001-2002)

12. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning disabilities –Boys are identified three times more frequently than girls –Most common form involves reading (i.e., dyslexia). ADHD –Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity –Occurs 4-9 times more often in boys –Signs may appear in preschool years –Usually identified in elementary years –About 85% to 90% of children with ADHD take stimulant medications such as Ritalin or Adderall –Behavior management treatment combined with drugs is more effective treatment than drugs alone

13. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1970s: Laws passed requiring all public schools to serve disabled children 1975 Public Law 94-142, was renamed Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990 Law requires disability students receive –IEP: Individualized education plans –LRE: Least restrictive environment setting –Inclusion in full-time, regular classroom

14. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Cognitive Changes

15. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Piaget: Preschool child is preoperational, thought is still flawed and not well organized Piaget provided a sound conceptual framework for viewing learning and education emphasizing: –Take a constructivist approach –Facilitate rather than direct learning –Consider child’s knowledge, level of thinking –Promote child’s intellectual health –Make classrooms exploration/discovery settings

16. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Fig. 10.4 Classification: An Important Ability in Concrete Operational Thought B A D G C EFI K HJ ML IV I II III A family tree of 4 generations; a preoperational child has trouble classifying the members

17. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Neo-Piagetians suggest more emphasis on how children process information During middle and late childhood –Information processing changes include memory, metacognition, and critical and creative thinking –Short-term memory increases quickly before age 7 –Long-term memory increases; expertise depends on learning activities and strategies used

18. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Two important strategies: creating mental images and elaborating on information Critical thinking: thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating evidence Creative thinking: ability to think in novel and unusual ways, devise unique solutions Convergent thinking Divergent thinking

19. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Strategies for fostering creativity: –Brainstorming –Provide environments that stimulate creativity –Don’t overcontrol –Encourage internal motivation –Foster flexible and playful thinking –Introduce children to creative people Metacognition: knowing about knowing and learning

20. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Intelligence: problem-solving skills, ability to learn Intelligence tests: –Binet Tests (early 1900s): IQ is MA divided by CA and multiplied by 100 –Stanford-Binet tests approximate a normal distribution—a bell-shaped curse. –Wechsler Scales: 11 subscales, 6verbal, 5nonverbal WPPSI-R: ages 4 to 6.5 years WISC-III: ages 6 to 16 years WAIS-III: adults

21. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores

22. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Sample Subscales of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV-Integrated)

23. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Thurstone: 7 types of primary abilities exist: –verbal comprehension, word fluency, spatial visualization, number ability, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed Sternberg: Triarchic theory –Analytical, creative, and practical intelligence Gardner: 8 types of intelligence –verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily- kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist There is great debate over what qualifies as a type of intelligence and how to assess it

24. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Controversies and issues in intelligence: –Heredity and genetics versus environment (increasingly higher scores suggest role of education) –Flynn effect –Bell curve: U.S. is developing large underclass of intellectually deprived –Racial and cultural bias –Use and misuse of IQ tests –Classifying types of mental retardation –Classification as being gifted

25. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Fig. 10.8 Fraternal twins Identical twins Similarity of intelligence (correlation) 0.4 0 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.3 Correlation Between Intelligence Test Scores and Twin Status

26. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Increase in IQ Scores from 1932 to 1997

27. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Extremes of Intelligence –Mental retardation – limited mental ability, low IQ, usually below 70, difficulty in everyday life. May be organic (genetics, brain disorder) or cultural/familial (below-average environment). –Giftedness IQ of 130 or higher and/or a superior talent for something. Three criteria characterize gifted children: (1) precocity; (2) march to their own drummer; (3) passion to master the domain in which they have special ability.

28. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language Development

29. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Language during middle and late childhood: –Changes occur in how words are selected –Increased logical reasoning/analytical skills –Increased ability to understand and use complex grammar –How to respond to fact that words are understood before child learns to read them? Whole-language approach Basic-skills-and-phonics approach Guided oral reading also recommended

30. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Fig. 10.11 6 to 10 5 or fewer Average reading score 200 0 170 180 210 220 230 240 190 The Relation of Reading Achievement to Number of Pages Read Daily 11 or more Number of pages read daily

31. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Bilingualism: –Learning a 2nd language is easiest for children –Ability to speak 2 languages has positive effect on child’s cognitive development and performance on tests in Control of attention (focus) Concept formation Analytic reasoning Cognitive flexibility Cognitive complexity

32. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Fig. 10.12 Grammar Proficiency and Age at Arrival in the United States Native 17–393–78–1011–15 50 100 90 80 70 60 Age at time of arrival in U.S. (years) Percentage correct on grammar test Ten years after arriving in the U.S., persons from China and Korea took a grammar test

33. ©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The End