1. SCHOLARLY JOURNALS

2. Research process State the research question Formulate a hypothesis (formal or working) Review the literature Devise a methodology Collect data Analyze data Present findings

3. Types of Periodicals Newspapers Magazines Professional journals Scholarly journals

4. Scholarly journal articles Abstract Introduction – Research question Implicit and explicit – Literature Review – Hypothesis Implicit and explicit There may be more than one Methodology – Research design Where did data come from? How was it analyzed? – Variables and measurement Findings – Data analysis – Conclusion/discussion

5. Abstracts This paper tests a variety of explanations for variation in distrust of local police in the US. As with other attitudes toward the police, there is a substantial race gap in distrust of the police. Our analysis is based upon citizen survey data from 33 cities and data on policing characteristics and the city context for those same cities. It reveals that individual-level factors representative of a psychological model are of substantial importance in accounting for variation in distrust of the police. City-level attributes tapping differences in police performance are also important predictors of citizen distrust of the police, even once individual-level attributes are controlled; and there are important racial differences in the impact of these police performance variables as well, resulting in a largely full accounting of the initial race gap. Accounting for Variation in Distrust of Local Police Elaine B. Sharp and Paul E. Johnson College education and police job performance: A ten-year study Donald M Truxillo; Suzanne R Bennett; Michelle L Collins A study investigated the relationship between measures of college education and work performance for a cohort of 84 police officers over a 10-year period. College education variables showed a statistically significant relationship with promotions and supervisory ratings of job knowledge. However, there was an inconsistent relationship with measures of disciplinary action. These patterns of relationships may indicate that college education is relevant to many aspects of police work but should not be assumed to predict all areas of job performance.

6. Introduction In the United States, there is a substantial race gap in satisfaction with urban services generally (Van Ryzin, Muzzio, & Immerwahr, 2004)—a gap that balloons into a gaping chasm when the subject is local policing in particular (Brown & Benedict, 2002, p. 547; MacDonald & Stokes, 2006; Thomas & Hyman, 1977, p. 77; Weitzer & Tuch, 1999, 2002). For three decades, research has replicated Thomas and Hyman’s (1977, p. 77) finding that race is “the best predictor of evaluations of police performance.” Researchers have not, however, been able to successfully account for the race gap in attitudes toward the police. This paper suggests one possible reason for this: An important piece of the puzzle—the impact of city-level differences in police policy and performance on individual attitudes—has yet to be adequately taken into account. In large part, this is because examination of the impact of city-level differences along…. The value of college education to effective work performance is accepted among many human resource practitioners. Recently, the importance of college education to law enforcement jobs has also gained attention, with some jurisdictions requiring college education as a prerequisite to hiring. Such requirements are purported to lead to improvements in police job performance such as decreased corruption.1 However, published research results of the relationship between education and job performance often conflicts. Furthermore, little recent, published research has explored this relationship in police work, an issue of particular relevance with changes in law enforcement such as community policing.

7. Literature Review For example, in a study of executives, it was found that certain education measures (e.g., possession of a law degree) were predictors of executive salary. 7 Other research also found that certain measures of education (e.g., college grades, possession of a college degree, major) were related to specific performance criteria for managers (e.g., advancement, interpersonal ability). One conclusion of this study was that future research should relate measures of college experience to specific performance dimensions relevant to the particular job in question. 8 Although empirical relationships have been found between education and police job performance, these relationships have generally been weak. 9 Individual-Level and Neighborhood-Level Explanations. Perhaps the oldest and most expansive body of research on attitudes toward the police focuses on an individual’s actual interactions with the police—with conclusions suggesting that citizens are more dissatisfied with the police if they have experienced particular types of contact or contact behaviors. However, researchers have had to move away from behavioral studies of police–citizen encounters to community surveys in order to generalize about alleged differences between those who have and those who have not had contact with the police (Reisig & Parks, 2000, p. 610). In the process, evidence of objective features of the police– citizen interaction have been replaced with citizen’s self-reported perceptions of their police encounters—perceptions that are shaped by the psychology of the individual….

8. Methodology / Research Design We test simultaneously for the impact of city- level variables reflecting police performance and individual-level attitudes on distrust toward the police. Tests of this sort have been feasible only recently because of advances in hierarchical modeling techniques as well as the availability of the appropriate data. This multilevel approach requires “representative samples from a diverse set of American localities–[which] allows us to examine both individual-level and the community-level determinants of trust in local government” (Rahn & Rudolph, 2005, p. 531). The data about individual attitudes is available from Robert Putnam’s Social Capital Benchmark Survey (SCBS). The SCBS combines data from a national random sample as well as respondents selected from large samples drawn from 41 American communities in 2000. The SCBS data allows one to conduct the usual individual-level analysis…. This study investigated the relationship between various education measures and work performance dimensions for a law enforcement job. Data were collected in a municipal police department using a sample of officers approximately 10 years after they were hired. Note that although officers in this organization were given tuition reimbursement, college education beyond high school was not a requirement for promotion, nor were employees with additional education given preference by the formal promotion or compensation systems. Because the relationship between education measures and individual dimensions of police work is unclear, no hypotheses were made regarding the pattern of relationships between education constructs and specific performance criteria. However, education measures that were most relevant to police work and most commonly suggested as….

9. Variables and measurement Measuring the Explanatory Variables Individual Psychological Predispositions and Demographic Controls. The SCBS included questions about important psychological and attitudinal predispositions. These include (1) a question about political efficacy measuring the individual’s perceived impact in making the community a better place to live (none, small, moderate, and big); (2) an item asking “how much you can trust people in your neighborhood” (a lot, some, only a little, not at all); (3) a similar set of items about trust in “African Americans or Blacks” and “Whites” that can be used to construct an indicator of the extent to which people trust members of their own race; (4) a quality of life measure asking respondents to rate their community as a place to live (poor, only fair, good, excellent) (5) a measure of political interest asking how interested the individual is in politics and national…. Measures Education… Four measures of education were developed from this questionnaire: total number of years in school, possession of a two-year (e.g., associate's) degree or higher, possession of a four-year (e.g., bachelor's) degree or higher, and the number of college credit hours earned in criminal justice courses. Written test. To explore the value of education relative to other predictors of job performance, score on the entrance exam was included in these analyses. This first hurdle in the selection process was a 75- item, content valid, multiple-choice test. Written test scores were available for 61 of the participants. A reliability estimate for this test was not available due to the archival nature of the test data….

10. Data Analysis Like Blacks, Whites who are more distrustful of their neighbors or others of their own race, have low political efficacy, or have a poor quality of life are more likely to distrust the police. Whites who are more highly educated are less…. All four education measures showed statistically significant correlations with supervisory ratings of job knowledge (mean r =.25). In addition, two education measures correlated with dependability. That education is related to job knowledge is understandable. Education’s relationship with dependability could be explained in terms of the motivational issues described above or in terms of a relationship with a personality dimension such as conscientiousness.l2 The weak relationship of education with the other supervisory rating dimensions is less easily explained….

11. Conclusion/discussion Discussion The “race gap” in attitudes toward the police is a durable finding that has intrigued scholars for some time. Previous research has emphasized individual level factors drawn either from a psychological model of attitudinal predispositions or neighborhood context. While we do not deny the role of these individual level phenomena, we seek to understand them within the context of law enforcement within cities. After incorporating objective indicators of crime and law enforcement practices and policy, we arrive at a better understanding of the differences between races in their outlook on local police. As other studies have found, we believe that the situations in which people live and their orientation toward the political system are likely to shape attitudes toward the police. Blacks who have a higher quality of life, are more interested in politics, and who believe the government can deal... Implications College education is often presumed to be related to job performance, and many jobs require some college education before consideration for hire. Some law enforcement organizations are beginning to encourage college education among their members through various human resource practices.17 This study presents evidence of a relationship between college education and police job performance over a IQ-year period in an organization where college education is not formally supported by the promotional system. The results presented here imply that law enforcement jurisdictions may be justified in requiring educational qualifications or giving additional credit or compensation for them. However, they should not do so without the appropriate validity evidence, as these results may not generalize to all law enforcement jobs and organizations….