1. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 1 and 2

2. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Chemistry In this science we study matter, its properties, and its behavior.

3. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Matter We define matter as anything that has mass and takes up space.

4. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Matter Atoms are the building blocks of matter. Each element is made of the same kind of atom. A compound is made of two or more different kinds of elements.

5. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. States of Matter

6. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Classification of Matter

7. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Classification of Matter

8. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Classification of Matter

9. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Classification of Matter

10. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Classification of Matter

11. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Classification of Matter

12. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Classification of Matter

13. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Classification of Matter

14. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Classification of Matter Matter And Measurement

15. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Classification of Matter Matter And Measurement

16. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Properties and Changes of Matter

17. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Types of Properties Physical Properties… –Can be observed without changing a substance into another substance. ◦Boiling point, density, mass, volume, etc. Chemical Properties… –Can only be observed when a substance is changed into another substance. ◦Flammability, corrosiveness, reactivity with acid, etc.

18. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Types of Properties Intensive Properties… –Are independent of the amount of the substance that is present. ◦Density, boiling point, color, etc. Extensive Properties… –Depend upon the amount of the substance present. ◦Mass, volume, energy, etc.

19. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Types of Changes Physical Changes –These are changes in matter that do not change the composition of a substance. ◦Changes of state, temperature, volume, etc. Chemical Changes –Chemical changes result in new substances. ◦Combustion, oxidation, decomposition, etc.

20. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Chemical Reactions In the course of a chemical reaction, the reacting substances are converted to new substances.

21. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Separation of Mixtures

22. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Filtration In filtration, solid substances are separated from liquids and solutions.

23. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Distillation Distillation uses differences in the boiling points of substances to separate a homogeneous mixture into its components.

24. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Chromatography This technique separates substances on the basis of differences in solubility in a solvent.

25. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Units of Measurement

26. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. SI Units Système International d’Unités A different base unit is used for each quantity.

27. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Metric System Prefixes convert the base units into units that are appropriate for the item being measured.

28. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Volume The most commonly used metric units for volume are the liter (L) and the milliliter (mL). –A liter is a cube 1 decimeter (dm) long on each side. –A milliliter is a cube 1 centimeter (cm) long on each side.

29. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Derived Units Density is a physical property of a substance. It has units (g/mL, for example) that are derived from the units for mass and volume. d = mVmV

30. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Uncertainty in Measurement

31. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Uncertainty in Measurements Different measuring devices have different uses and different degrees of accuracy.

32. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Significant Figures The term significant figures refers to digits that were measured. When rounding calculated numbers, we pay attention to significant figures so we do not overstate the accuracy of our answers.

33. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Significant Figures 1.All nonzero digits are significant. 2.Zeroes between two significant figures are themselves significant. 3.Zeroes at the beginning of a number are never significant. 4.Zeroes at the end of a number are significant if a decimal point is written in the number.

34. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Significant Figures When addition or subtraction is performed, answers are rounded to the least significant decimal place. When multiplication or division is performed, answers are rounded to the number of digits that corresponds to the least number of significant figures in any of the numbers used in the calculation.

35. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Accuracy versus Precision Accuracy refers to the proximity of a measurement to the true value of a quantity. Precision refers to the proximity of several measurements to each other.

36. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Dimensional Analysis We use dimensional analysis to convert one quantity to another. Most commonly, dimensional analysis utilizes conversion factors (e.g., 1 in. = 2.54 cm) 1 in. 2.54 cm 1 in. or

37. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Dimensional Analysis Use the form of the conversion factor that puts the sought-for unit in the numerator: Given unit  desired unit desired unit given unit Conversion factor

38. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Dimensional Analysis For example, to convert 8.00 m to inches, –convert m to cm –convert cm to in.  8.00 m  100 cm 1 m 1 in. 2.54 cm  315 in.

39. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Atomic Theory of Matter The theory that atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter reemerged in the early nineteenth century, championed by John Dalton.

40. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Dalton's Postulates Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.

41. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Dalton's Postulates All atoms of a given element are identical to one another in mass and other properties, but the atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.

42. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Dalton's Postulates Atoms of an element are not changed into atoms of a different element by chemical reactions; atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

43. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Dalton's Postulates Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine; a given compound always has the same relative number and kind of atoms.

44. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Law of Conservation of Mass The total mass of substances present at the end of a chemical process is the same as the mass of substances present before the process took place.

45. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The Electron Streams of negatively charged particles were found to emanate from cathode tubes, causing fluorescence. J. J. Thomson is credited with their discovery (1897).

46. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The Electron Thomson measured the charge/mass ratio of the electron to be 1.76  10 8 coulombs/gram (C/g).

47. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment Once the charge/mass ratio of the electron was known, determination of either the charge or the mass of an electron would yield the other.

48. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment Robert Millikan (University of Chicago) determined the charge on the electron in 1909.

49. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Radioactivity Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation by an atom. It was first observed by Henri Becquerel. Marie and Pierre Curie also studied it.

50. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Radioactivity Three types of radiation were discovered by Ernest Rutherford: –  particles –  particles –  rays

51. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The Atom, circa 1900 The prevailing theory was that of the “plum pudding” model, put forward by Thomson. It featured a positive sphere of matter with negative electrons imbedded in it.

52. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Discovery of the Nucleus Ernest Rutherford shot  particles at a thin sheet of gold foil and observed the pattern of scatter of the particles.

53. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The Nuclear Atom Since some particles were deflected at large angles, Thomson’s model could not be correct.

54. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. The Nuclear Atom Rutherford postulated a very small, dense nucleus with the electrons around the outside of the atom. Most of the volume of the atom is empty space.

55. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Other Subatomic Particles Protons were discovered by Rutherford in 1919. Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.

56. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Subatomic Particles Protons and electrons are the only particles that have a charge. Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass. The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.

57. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Symbols of Elements Elements are symbolized by one or two letters.

58. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Symbols of Elements All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, which is called the atomic number, Z.

59. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Symbols of Elements The mass of an atom in atomic mass units (amu) is the total number of protons and neutrons in the atom.

60. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Isotopes Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses. Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.

61. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Atomic Mass Atomic and molecular masses can be measured with great accuracy using a mass spectrometer.

62. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Average Mass Because in the real world we use large amounts of atoms and molecules, we use average masses in calculations. Average mass is calculated from the isotopes of an element weighted by their relative abundances.

63. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Periodic Table The periodic table is a systematic catalog of the elements. Elements are arranged in order of atomic number.

64. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Periodic Table The rows on the periodic chart are periods. Columns are groups. Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.

65. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Periodicity When one looks at the chemical properties of elements, one notices a repeating pattern of reactivities.

66. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Groups These five groups are known by their names.

67. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Periodic Table Nonmetals are on the right side of the periodic table (with the exception of H).

68. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Periodic Table Metalloids border the stair-step line (with the exception of Al, Po, and At).

69. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Periodic Table Metals are on the left side of the chart.

70. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Chemical Formulas The subscript to the right of the symbol of an element tells the number of atoms of that element in one molecule of the compound.

71. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Chemical Formulas Molecular compounds are composed of molecules and almost always contain only nonmetals.

72. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Diatomic Molecules These seven elements occur naturally as molecules containing two atoms: –Hydrogen –Nitrogen –Oxygen –Fluorine –Chlorine –Bromine –Iodine

73. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Types of Formulas Empirical formulas give the lowest whole- number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound. Molecular formulas give the exact number of atoms of each element in a compound.

74. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Types of Formulas Structural formulas show the order in which atoms are bonded. Perspective drawings also show the three-dimensional array of atoms in a compound.

75. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Ions When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions. –Cations are positive and are formed by elements on the left side of the periodic chart. –Anions are negative and are formed by elements on the right side of the periodic chart.

76. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Ionic Bonds Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally formed between metals and nonmetals.

77. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Writing Formulas Because compounds are electrically neutral, one can determine the formula of a compound this way: –The charge on the cation becomes the subscript on the anion. –The charge on the anion becomes the subscript on the cation. –If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole- number ratio, divide them by the greatest common factor.

78. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Common Cations

79. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Common Anions

80. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Inorganic Nomenclature Write the name of the cation. If the anion is an element, change its ending to -ide; if the anion is a polyatomic ion, simply write the name of the polyatomic ion. If the cation can have more than one possible charge, write the charge as a Roman numeral in parentheses.

81. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature When there are two oxyanions involving the same element: –The one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite. –The one with more oxygens ends in -ate. NO 2 − : nitrite ; SO 3 2− : sulfite NO 3 − : nitrate; SO 4 2− : sulfate

82. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature Central atoms on the second row have bond to at most three oxygens; those on the third row take up to four. Charges increase as you go from right to left.

83. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite. –ClO 2 − : chlorite The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate. –ClO 3 − : chlorate

84. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo- and ends in -ite. –ClO − : hypochlorite The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and ends in -ate. –ClO 4 − : perchlorate

85. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Acid Nomenclature If the anion in the acid ends in -ide, change the ending to -ic acid and add the prefix hydro-. –HCl: hydrochloric acid –HBr: hydrobromic acid –HI: hydroiodic acid

86. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Acid Nomenclature If the anion in the acid ends in -ite, change the ending to -ous acid. –HClO: hypochlorous acid –HClO 2 : chlorous acid

87. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Acid Nomenclature If the anion in the acid ends in -ate, change the ending to -ic acid. –HClO 3 : chloric acid –HClO 4 : perchloric acid

88. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Nomenclature of Binary Compounds The less electronegative atom is usually listed first. A prefix is used to denote the number of atoms of each element in the compound (mono- is not used on the first element listed, however).

89. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Nomenclature of Binary Compounds The ending on the more electronegative element is changed to -ide. –CO 2 : carbon dioxide –CCl 4 : carbon tetrachloride

90. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Nomenclature of Binary Compounds If the prefix ends with a or o and the name of the element begins with a vowel, the two successive vowels are often elided into one. N 2 O 5 : dinitrogen pentoxide

91. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Nomenclature of Organic Compounds Organic chemistry is the study of carbon. Organic chemistry has its own system of nomenclature.

92. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Nomenclature of Organic Compounds The simplest hydrocarbons (compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen) are alkanes.

93. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Nomenclature of Organic Compounds The first part of the names just listed correspond to the number of carbons (meth- = 1, eth- = 2, prop- = 3, etc.).

94. Matter And Measurement © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Nomenclature of Organic Compounds When a hydrogen in an alkane is replaced with something else (a functional group, like -OH in the compounds above), the name is derived from the name of the alkane. The ending denotes the type of compound. –An alcohol ends in -ol.