1. Chapter 7: Human Memory

2. Human Memory: Basic Questions How does information get into memory? How is information maintained in memory? How is information pulled back out of memory?

3. Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory

4. Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory Attention- focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. Divided attention- can have a negative impact on the performance of quite a variety of tasks. –When participants are forced to divide their attention between memory encoding and some other task, large reductions in memory performance is seen.

5. Encoding: Getting Information into Memory Levels of processing –Incoming information processed at different levels –Theory proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes –Encoding levels: Structural = shallow-emphasizes the physical structure of the stimuli Phonemic = intermediate-emphasizes what a word sounds like Semantic = deep-emphasizes the meaning of verbal input

6. Figure 7.3 Levels-of-processing theory

7. Enriching Encoding to Improve Memory Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding –The additional associations created usually help people remember information –Often consists of thinking of examples that illustrate an idea Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered –Easier to form images for concrete objects than of abstract concepts Dual-coding theory- memory is enhanced by forming both semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall.

8. Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory Information storage in computers ~ information storage in human memory Information-processing theories- subdivide memory into 3 different stores –Sensory- preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second (afterimage) –Short-term- a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds –Long-term- an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time

9. Figure 7.6 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage

10. Short Term Memory (STM) Limited duration – about 20 seconds without rehearsal –Rehearsal – the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information (keeping it in use) Limited capacity – people can only recall about 7 items on tasks that required them to remember unfamiliar material (magical number 7 plus or minus 2) –When STM is filled to capacity, the insertion of new information often displaces some of the current information. –Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit (phone numbers) Helps increase the capacity of your STM

11. Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory” STM not limited to phonemic encoding Loss of information not only due to decay Baddeley (1986) – 4 components of working memory –Phonological rehearsal loop- is at work when you use recitation to temporarily hold onto a phone number –Visuospatial sketchpad- allows temporary holding and manipulation of visual images –Central executive system-handles the limited amount of information juggled at one time as people in reasoning and decision making –Episodic buffer- temporary limited capacity store that allows the various components of working memory to integrate information (serves as an interface between working and LTM)

12. Figure 7.7 Short-term memory as working memory

13. Long-Term Memory Unlimited capacity- our memory store never gets full. Flashbulb memories- unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events –the only reason we forget is that we aren’t able to access information that is still in LTM How is knowledge represented and organized in memory? –Schemas and Scripts –Semantic Networks –Connectionist Networks and PDP Models

14. Organization in Long-Term Memory Schemas- an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event –script is a particular type of schema, organizing what a person knows about common activities, for example going to a restaurant Semantic Networks- consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts –explains why thinking of butter makes bread easier to remember Connectionist Networks- assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks –specific memories correspond to specific patterns of activation in these networks

15. Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach. (failure in retrieval) –Retrieval cues- stimuli that help gain access to memories (hints, partial recollections) Reinstating the context through context cues –Trying to recall an event by putting yourself back in the context in which it occurred.

16. Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory Reconstructing memories-sketchy reconstructions of the past that may be distorted and cause the misinformation effect –A recall of an event that was witnessed but altered due to the introduction of misleading postevent information Source monitoring error- an error that occurs when a memory derived from one source is attributed to another source –A crucial part of memory retrieval that contributes to many of the mistakes that people make in reconstructing their experiences

17. Forgetting: When Memory Lapses Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve- graphs retention and forgetting over time –Showed that most forgetting occurs very rapidly after learning something. Retention- the proportion of material retained (remembered). Can assessed with measures of forgetting –Recall-requires participants to reproduce information on their own without cues –Recognition- requires participants to select previously learned information from an array of options –Relearning- requires a participant to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or effort is saved by having learned before

18. Figure 7.10 Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve for nonsense syllables

19. Why We Forget Ineffective Encoding-the information may have never been inserted in the memory in the first place –Pseudoforgetting- you can’t remember something you never learned Decay- forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time Interference-people forget information because of competition from other material –Proactive- occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information –Retroactive- occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information

20. Why We Forget Retrieval failure- may occur when a mismatch exists between retrieval cues and the encoding of the information to be recalled

21. Figure 7.11 Effects of interference

22. Figure 7.12 Retroactive and proactive interference

23. Retrieval Failure May occur when a mismatch exists between retrieval cues and the encoding of the information to be recalled Encoding Specificity-sometimes we are unable to retrieve information because the retrieval cues do not correspond very well to memory cues. Transfer-Appropriate Processing-occurs when the initial processing of information is similar to the kind of processing that is required by the measure of retention.

24. Retrieval Failure Repression-the motivated forgetting of material, especially anxiety-provoking memories. –Authenticity of repressed memories? sharply debated because experiments show that it is relatively easy to create very real-seeming false memories. –Memory illusions-false memories that can be reliably created in normal, healthy participants in minutes. –Controversy Evidence suggests that sometimes therapists have unwittingly produced false memories in their clients, but it is likely that at least some recovered memories are accurate. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=23Pum-7-pyM&feature=BFa&list=PLF9A174B24892CB44&index=6

25. Figure 7.14 The prevalence of false memories observed by Roediger and McDermott (1995)

26. The Physiology of Memory Anatomy-many brain structures have been shown to be important in memory. –Anterograde (for subsequent events)and Retrograde Amnesia (for prior events) Hippocampus Medial temporal lobe memory system Neural circuitry- memories appear to depend on localized neural circuits in the brain –reusable pathways in the brain that may be specific for specific memories Biochemistry –Hormonal changes which may modulate activity in a variety of neurotransmitter systems. –Protein synthesis-has also been shown to be necessary for memory formation.

27. Figure 7.16 The anatomy of memory

28. Systems and Types of Memory Two memory systems: Declarative- handles recall of factual information (names, dates, events, ideas) Nondeclarative- handles recall of actions, skills, and operations (riding a bike or typing)

29. Declarative Memory System: Type of memory Semantic vs. Episodic Semantic memory system contains general knowledge that is not temporally dated Episodic memory system handles temporally dated recollections of personal experiences Prospective vs. Retrospective Prospective memory involves remembering to perform actions in the future Retrospective memory involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information http://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=rSzPn9rsPcY&NR=1http://www.youtube.com/watch ?v=rSzPn9rsPcY&NR=1

30. Figure 7.17 Theories of independent memory systems

31. Figure 7.18 Retrospective versus prospective memory http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TausqSK9p9k&feature=related