© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Operator Generic Fundamentals Thermodynamic Units and Properties.

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Terminal Learning Objectives At the completion of this training session, the trainee will demonstrate mastery of this topic by passing a written exam with a grade of ≥ 80% score on the following topics (TLOs): 1.Describe thermodynamic properties and methods of measuring intensive and extensive properties. 2.Explain the concepts of heat, work, and energy. 2 TLOs

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Thermodynamic Properties 1.1Define the following properties: specific volume, density, mass, weight, intensive, and extensive. 1.2Define the thermodynamic properties of temperature and convert between the Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin, and Rankine scales. 1.3Define the thermodynamic properties of pressure and convert between pressure scales. 3 TLO 1 – Describe thermodynamic properties and methods of measuring intensive and extensive properties. TLO 1

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals ELO 1.1 Properties and Definitions Operators must be able to convert between units of measurement to ensure plant operating within established limits –RCS leak rates, pump surveillances, etc. Some conversions provided at bottom of NRC Equation Sheet 4 ELO 1.1 – Define the following properties: specific volume, density, mass, weight, intensive, and extensive.

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals ELO 1.1 Properties and Definitions American Engineering System 5 LengthMassTime InchOunceSecond* Foot*Pound*Minute YardTonHour Mile Day NOTE: *Denotes standard unit of measure

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals LengthMassTime MillimeterMilligramSecond* Meter*GramMinute KilometerKilogram*Hour Day NOTE: *Denotes standard unit of measure ELO 1.1 Properties and Definitions International System (SI) – MKS Units 6

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals ELO 1.1 Properties and Definitions International System (SI) – CGS Units 7 LengthMassTime Centimeter*MilligramSecond* MeterGram*Minute KilometerKilogramHour Day NOTE: *Denotes standard unit of measure

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Figure: Metric System Prefixes ELO 1.1 Properties and Definitions PrefixSymbolPower of 10Example picop10 -12 1 picosecond (ps) = 10 -12 seconds nanon10 -9 1 nanosecond (ns) = 10 -9 seconds micro  10 -6 1 microsecond (  s) = 10 -6 seconds millim10 -3 1 millimeter (mm) = 10 -3 meters centic10 -2 1 centimeter (cm) = 10 -2 meters decid10 -1 1 decigram (dg) = 10 -1 grams hectoh10 2 1 hectometer (hm) = 10 2 meters kilok10 3 1 kilogram (kg) = 10 3 grams megaM10 6 1 megawatt (MW) = 10 6 watts gigaG10 9 1 gigawatt (GW) = 10 9 watts

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals UnitEnglish Units of Measurement Meter-Kilogram-Second (MKS) Units of Measurement Length1 yard (yd) 12 inches (in.) 5,280 feet (ft) 1 (meter) m 1 in. = 0.9144 meter (m) = 1 ft = 1 mi = 3.281 ft = 0.0254 m Time60 seconds (sec) 3,600 sec = 1 minute (min) = 1 hour (hr) Mass1 pound mass (lbm) 2.205 lbm 1 kilogram (kg) 0.4535 kg = 1 kg = 1,000 grams (g) Area1 square foot (ft 2 ) 10.764 ft 2 1 square yard (yd 2 ) 1 square mile (mi 2 ) = 144 in. 2 = 1 square meter (m 2 ) = 9 ft 2 3.098 x 10 6 yd 2 Volume7.48 gallon (gal) 1 gal 1 liter (l) = 1 cubic foot (ft 3 ) = 3.785 l (liter) = 1,000 cubic centimeters (cm 3 ) ELO 1.1 Typical Conversion Table

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals ELO 1.1 Properties and Definitions Steps for Converting Units: 1.Identify units given and units required 2.Select the equivalence relationship 3.Arrange the ration in the appropriate manner such that (# desired /current) = 1 4.Multiply quantity by ratio 5.Multiple conversion factors may be required Practice conversions using “railroad track” technique to ensure proper answers! 10

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals ELO 1.1 Practice Unit Conversion Reactor core thermal power is 1,800 MWth. Convert to BTU/hr. –Units given are megawatts and units desired are BTU/hr –1 Mw = 3.41 x 106 BTU/hr 12 1,800 MW converts to 6.138 x 10 9 BTU/hr

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals ELO 1.1 Properties and Definitions - Mass & Weight Mass (m) - measure of amount of material present in that body Weight (wt) - force exerted by that body when its mass is accelerated in a gravitational field Mass and weight related g c has same numerical value as acceleration of gravity 13

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Intensive vs. Extensive Properties Intensive –independent of mass and does not depend on how much of substance is present –Temperature, pressure Extensive –depends on mass (or how much of substance is present) –Volume, weight For example –Volume (V) is extensive –Specific Volume ( v ) is intensive o Volume/Mass – units are ft 3 /lbm 14 ELO 1.1

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals ELO 1.1 Properties and Definitions – Specific Volume Volume - amount of space a particular substance occupies Specific volume is total volume (V) of that substance divided by total mass (m) of that substance Specific volume values provided in Steam Table 15

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals ELO 1.1 Properties and Definitions - Density Density (ρ) is total mass (m) of that substance divided by total volume (V) occupied by that substance –Describes how much stuff is packed into specific volume Units of pound-mass per cubic feet (lbm/ft 3 ) Density of a substance is reciprocal of its specific volume (ν) 16

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Properties and Definitions - Density Density can be changed by changing pressure or temperature Increasing pressure increases density of a material Increasing temperature decreases density –Change in density greater at higher temperatures Pressure effect greater on steam –Liquids essentially incompressible 17 ELO 1.1

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Figure: Comparison of Temperature Scales Properties of Temperature 19 ELO 1.2 – Define the thermodynamic properties of temperature and convert between the Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin, and Rankine scales. ELO 1.2

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Temperature Temperature is a intensive measure of amount of energy stored in an object of a standard mass –Measure of average molecular kinetic energy of a substance The more molecular movement, the higher the temperature of the substance will be –Relative measure of how "hot" or "cold" a substance Used to predict direction of heat transfer 20 ELO 1.2

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Temperature Scales Two temperature scales normally used for measurement purposes –Fahrenheit (F) –Celsius (C) Based on number of increments between freezing and boiling –Celsius scale has 100 units –Fahrenheit scale has 180 units Since both scales “relate” temperature of a substance to a recognized condition, they are referred to as relative temperature scales 21 Figure: Boiling and Freezing Points of Water for Celsius and Fahrenheit Temperature Scales ELO 1.2

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Scales of Pressure 24 ELO 1.3 – Define the thermodynamic properties of pressure and convert between pressure scales. Figure: Pressure Scale Relationships ELO 1.3

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Scales of Pressure Force exerted per unit area on boundaries of substance (or system) –Pascal’s Principle – “pressure felt undiminished throughout” Collisions of molecules of substance with boundaries of system –Hit walls of their container or system pushing outward –Forces resulting from these collisions cause pressure exerted by a system on its surroundings Units –lbf/in 2 (psi) 25 ELO 1.3

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Scales of Pressure Scales use units of inches of H 2 O or Hg Height of column of liquid provides a certain pressure that can be directly converted to force per unit area –0.491 psi = 1 inch of Hg o NRC bank questions use 0.5 for simplicity –0.433 psi = 1 ft of water (based on lower temps – 60-80 degrees) –14.7 psia = 408 inches of water –14.7 psia = 29.9 inches of Hg o NRC bank questions use 15 psi and 30.0 in Hg 26 ELO 1.3

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Inches Hg vs. PSIA- Relationships Sum of inches Hg and inches Absolute equal 30 −30 in Hg vacuum = 0 in absolute −28 in Hg vacuum = 2 in absolute Sum of PSIA and PSIV equals 15 −15 psia = 0 psiv −1 psia = 14 psiv 2 inches for every pound −15 psia = 30 inches absolute −14 psiv = 28 in Hg vacuum Based on above: −28 in Hg vacuum = 1 psia (this is a key relationship used extensively!) 29 ELO 1.3

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Scales of Pressure Knowledge Check A pressure gauge on a condenser reads 27 inches of mercury (Hg) vacuum. What is the absolute pressure corresponding to this vacuum? (Assume an atmospheric pressure of 15 psia.) A.14.0 psia B.13.5 psia C.1.5 psia D.1.0 psia Correct answer is C. 30 ELO 1.3

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Scales of Pressure P abs = P atm – P vacuum P abs = 15 psia – 27”Hg (1psia/2”Hg) P abs = 15 psia – 13.5 psia = 1.5 psia 31 Figure: Gauge and Absolute Pressure Scale Relationship ELO 1.3 Absolute Vacuum Absolute

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals PSI to Water Height Example A water storage tank is vented to atmosphere. The tank is located at sea level and contains 100,000 gallons of water at 60°F. A pressure gauge at the bottom of the tank reads 9.0 psig. What is the approximate water level in the tank? z = 20.7 ft 33 ELO 1.3

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals PSI to Water Height Example (cont.) Recall the unit conversion from psi to ft of water –0.433 psi = 1 ft H 2 O o Therefore, 1 psi = 2.3 ft H 2 O (1/0.433 = 2.3) Where does this come from? –Unit conversion from previous equation Note: Since density vs temperature curve is relatively straight at low temps –Density at standard temp/press of 62.4 can be used Only unit conversion required was –144 in 2 /ft 2 9.0 x 2.3 = 20.7 ft; or, 9.0/0.433 = 20.7 ft 34 ELO 1.3

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Scales of Pressure Knowledge Check – NRC Bank Refer to the drawing of a tank with a differential pressure (D/P) level detector (see figure below). If the tank contains 30 feet of water at 60°F, what is the approximate D/P sensed by the detector? A.7 psid B.13 psid C.20 psid D.28 psid Correct answer is B. 35 ELO 1.3

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Heat, Work, and Energy 2.1State the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics and how they relate to the conservation of energy. 2.2Define the following thermodynamic properties: potential energy, kinetic energy, specific internal energy, specific P-V energy, specific enthalpy, and specific entropy. 2.3Explain the relationship between work, energy, and power. 2.4Define the following terms: heat, sensible heat, latent heat, specific heat, and super heat. 36 TLO 2 – Explain the concepts of heat, work, and energy. TLO 2

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Laws of Thermodynamics The processes of our secondary cycle are either a transfer of heat or a change in energy form 37 ELO 2.1 – State the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics and how they relate to the conservation of energy ELO 2.1

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Laws of Thermodynamics Introduction First Law of Thermodynamics states: –Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, only altered in form o Several energy conversions discussed in Thermodynamics –Velocity energy to pressure energy (water hammer) –Flow energy to internal energy (headloss) –Heat energy to mechanical energy (turbine) Second Law of Thermodynamics states: –No engine, actual or ideal, when operating in a cycle can convert all the heat supplied it into mechanical work–heat must be rejected o Losses captured by term “entropy” o Goal is to minimize the change in entropy 38 ELO 2.1

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals ELO 2.2 Properties of Energy Understanding energy terms will help understand the General Energy equation –Bernoulli’s Equation 39 ELO 2.2 – Define the following thermodynamic properties: potential energy, kinetic energy, specific internal energy, specific P-V energy, specific enthalpy, and specific entropy.

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Properties of Energy Energy is capacity of a system to perform work Forms of stored energy important in analysis of systems: –Potential energy o Due to height –Kinetic energy o Due to velocity –Internal energy o Due to temperature –P-V (flow) energy o Due to pressure 40 ELO 2.2

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Energy - Kinetic Work needed to accelerate a body from rest to its current velocity –Body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes Kinetic energy (KE) is energy that a body possesses as a result of its motion Using English system units Where: KE = kinetic energy (ft-lbf) m = mass (lbm) v = velocity (ft/sec) g c = gravitational conversion constant - 32.17 ft-lbm/lbf-sec2 43 ELO 2.2

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Energy - Internal Potential and kinetic energy are macroscopic forms of energy –Visualized in terms of position and velocity of objects Substances possess microscopic forms of energy including those due to: –Rotation –Vibration –Translation –Interactions among molecules of a substance 45 ELO 2.2

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Energy – Flow Energy (PV) Energy arises from pressure ( P ) and volume ( V ) of a fluid –Numerically equal to P x V A system where pressure and volume are permitted to expand performs work on its surroundings (flow work) –Energy defined as capacity of a system to perform work –Fluid under pressure has capacity to perform work P-V energy (flow energy) foot-pounds force (ft-lbf) Specific P-V energy of a substance is P-V energy per unit mass –Equals total P-V divided by total mass m, OR –Product of pressure P and specific volume v written as P v o ft-lbf/lbm 48 ELO 2.2

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Energy - Entropy Measure of inability to do work for a given heat transferred –Quantifies energy of a substance that is no longer available to perform useful work –Represented by S –Property of a substance like pressure, temperature, volume, and enthalpy Steam tables include values of specific entropy ( s = S/m ) as part of information tabulated Specific entropy (s) property is of no real value, but the  s is 51 ELO 2.2

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Energy - Entropy Like enthalpy, entropy cannot be measured directly Entropy of a substance is given with respect to some reference value – specific entropy of water is zero at 32 o F (492 o R) Change in specific entropy (Δs), not absolute value, important in practical problems 52 Figure: Entropy of Ice and Water ELO 2.2

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Properties of Energy Knowledge Check ___________ is the measure of energy content of the fluid due to its temperature, pressure, and volume. A.Entropy B.Kinetic energy C.Enthalpy D.Specific internal energy Correct answer is C. 54 ELO 2.2

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals ELO 2.3 Work, Energy, and Power Nuclear power plants transfer thermal energy produced in nuclear fuel into mechanical work of the turbine-generator, and then electrical energy Work is the applied force to move a mass, multiplied by distance that mass was moved; power is rate of doing work (work done per unit time) Each term is related and must be understood to solve thermodynamic process equations 55 ELO 2.3 – Explain the relationship between work, energy, and power.

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Work, Energy, and Power Work – measures completed task Energy – ability to do work Power – measures amount of work over time Power defined as time rate of doing work and is equivalent to rate of energy transfer 56 ELO 2.3

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Work, Energy, and Power In dealing with work in relation to energy transfer systems, it is important to distinguish between work done by the system on its surroundings and work done on the system by its surroundings –Work is done BY the system when used to turn a turbine and thereby generate electricity in a turbine-generator (+ Work) –Work is done ON the system when a pump is used to move working fluid from one location to another (– Work) 60 ELO 2.3

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Work, Energy, and Power Units of various forms of energy are different but equivalent Potential, kinetic, internal, P-V, work, and heat may be measured in numerous basic units Three types of units used to measure energy: –Mechanical units such as foot-pound-force (ft-lbf) –Thermal units such as British thermal unit (Btu) –Electrical units such as watt-second (W-sec) In the mks and cgs systems (not testable): –Mechanical units of energy are joule (j) and erg –Thermal units are kilocalorie (kcal) and calorie (cal) –Electrical units are watt-second (W-sec) and erg 61 ELO 2.3

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals ELO 2.4 Properties of Heat Heat is energy in transition caused by a difference in temperature Sample heat transfer process –Steam Generator 65 ELO 2.4 – Define the following terms: heat, sensible heat, latent heat, specific heat, and super heat.

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Properties of Heat Heat is energy in transit Transfer of energy as heat occurs at molecular level as a result of a temperature difference Symbol Q used to denote heat Unit of heat is the British thermal unit (Btu) –Specifically called 60 degree Btu since it is measured by a one degree temperature change from 59.5 o F to 60.5 o F 66 ELO 2.4

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Properties of Heat Amount of heat transferred depends upon path Important to distinguish between heat added to a system from its surroundings and heat removed from a system to its surroundings –Positive value for heat indicates heat is added to system by its surroundings (+Q) o Steam Generator –Negative value for heat indicates heat is removed from system by its surroundings (-Q) o Condenser –Contrast with work - positive when energy is transferred from the system and negative when transferred to the system 67 ELO 2.4

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Properties of Heat - Sensible Heat Heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in its temperature –Units of heat often defined in terms of changes in temperature they produce Basically the heat added to a subcooled liquid –Feedwater entering the SG, for example 70 ELO 2.4

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Properties of Heat - Latent Heat Amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase When latent heat added/removed, no temperature change occurs Three types of latent heat –Latent heat of vaporization - heat added or removed to change phase between liquid and vapor o Removal part normally called latent heat of condensation –Latent heat of fusion - heat added or removed to change phase between solid and liquid o Not applicable to our thermodynamic processes –Latent heat of sublimation - heat added or removed to change phase between solid and vapor o Not applicable to our thermodynamic processes 71 ELO 2.4

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Properties of Heat - Specific Heat Ratio of heat (Q) added to or removed from a substance to change in temperature (ΔT) produced called heat capacity (C p ) of substance Heat capacity of a substance per unit mass called specific heat (c p ) of substance –C p and c p apply when heat is added or removed at constant pressure 72 ELO 2.4

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Properties of Heat Specific Heat Example How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 5 lbm of water from 50 o F to 150 o F? Assume specific heat (c p ) for water is constant at 1.0 Btu/lbm- o F 74 ELO 2.4

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Properties of Heat - Super Heat Number of degrees above saturation temperature at a specific pressure From previous discussions on heat and work, similarities evident: –Heat and work both transient phenomena –Systems never possess heat or work, but either or both may occur when a system undergoes a change of energy state –Both heat and work are boundary phenomena in that both are observed at boundary of system –Both represent energy crossing system boundary 75 ELO 2.4

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Properties of Heat Knowledge Check Which of the following must be added to or removed from a substance to produce a temperature change? A.Latent heat B.Specific heat C.Sensible heat D.Thermal heat Correct answer is C. 76 ELO 2.4

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Units and Properties Summary Relationships between inHg vac, inHg abs, and psia –Majority of bank questions on this concept Relationship between psi and ft H 2 0 –Recall 0.433 psi = 1 ft H 2 O (at low temps) DP Level Detector concepts discussed in 191002 – Sensors and Detectors The first and second laws of thermodynamics Thermodynamic properties related to energy (PE, KE, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy) The relationship of work, energy, and power Types of heat (sensible, latent, specific, and super) 77 Summary

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals NRC KA to ELO Tie 78 KA #KA StatementROSROELO K1.01Convert between absolute and gauge pressure and vacuum scales.2.52.71.3 K1.02Recognize the difference between absolute and relative (Kelvin) temperature scales.1.92.01.2 K1.03Describe how pressure and level sensing instruments work.2.6 NOTE K1.04Explain relationships between work, power, and energy.2.22.3 K1.05Explain the law of conservation of energy.2.1 NOTEK1.03 is covered (and tested) in 191002 - Sensors and Detectors

© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Operator Generic Fundamentals Thermodynamic Units and Properties.

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© Copyright 2016Operator Generic Fundamentals Operator Generic Fundamentals Thermodynamic Units and Properties.

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