2.  Basic assumption: events are governed by some lawful order (recall Galileo and mechanism). Psychologists assume that behavior is governed by discernible laws or principles; these just need to be uncovered.  The goals of the scientific enterprise of psychology are: › To observe, measure, and describe a phenomenon. › To understand and make predictions. Psychologists form hypotheses about how variables interact. A hypothesis is a tentative statement of prediction about the relationship between 2 or more variables. Variables are the things that are observed and/or controlled in a study. › To control and apply. Information gathered by scientists may be of some practical value in helping to solve problems in schools, businesses, mental health centers, etc.

3. Figure 2.1 Theory construction

4.  Operational definitions are used to define and clarify precisely what is meant by each variable, as well as to state how each variable will be measured. In short, this is a detailed description of how a researcher will conduct the actual experiment, from design, to measurement of the design’s implementation, to conclusions drawn.  Participants or subjects are the organisms whose behavior is systematically observed in a research study.  Data collection techniques allow for empirical observation and measurement. Researchers use procedures for making empirical observations and measurements, including direct observation, questionnaires, interviews, psychological tests, physiological recordings, and examination of archival records.  Statistics are used to analyze data and decide whether hypotheses were supported. Observations are converted into numbers, which are then compared.

5. Table 2.1 Key Data Collection Techniques in Psychology

6.  Research methods consist of differing approaches to the observation, measurement, manipulation, and control of variables in empirical studies.  The research methods you need to know are: › The Experiment › Ex Post Facto Research › Correlation › Survey and Interview › Case study › Observational Research  Participant observational research  Naturalistic observational research

7.  The Experiment is a research design where a researcher manipulates one variable (the independent variable) in order to observe if there was any effect from that manipulation on another variable (the dependent variable). The subjects that were manipulated (the experimental group) are then compared to the observations of a normative second group (the control group) which is tested, measured, and observed without the independent variable being manipulated. The researcher is looking to see what, if any, differences exist between the two groups. The idea is to try to see if the independent variable caused any changes or differences in the final results. In this way, the experiment can detect cause-and-effect relationships.  Independent variable (IV) = variable manipulated  Dependent variable (DV) = variable affected by manipulation › How does X (amount of time studying) affect Y (exam grades)? › X = Independent Variable, and Y = Dependent Variable

8.  Strengths: The power of the experimental method lies in the ability to draw conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships from an experiment. No other research method has this power. Precise measurement is another strength.  Weaknesses: Experiments are often artificial. Researchers have to come up with contrived settings so that they have control over the environment. Some experiments cannot be done because of ethical concerns. For example, you would never want to malnourish infants on purpose to see what the effects are on intelligence. Others cannot be done because of practical issues. There’s no way we can randomly assign families to live in urban vs. rural areas so we can determine the effects of city vs. country living. Experiments are also prone to bias of both the researcher and participants.

9.  An extraneous variable is a variable, other than the independent variable, that may influence the dependent variable.  Confounding variables occur when participants in one group of subjects are inadvertently different in some important way from participants in the other group, thus influencing the research outcome.  Random assignment of subjects is used to control for confounding variables.

10.  Counterbalancing occurs when a researcher doesn’t split his sample into two groups, but instead keeps all of the subjects in a single group. This method requires the subjects to be tested and measured according to two different conditions, the control condition, and then the experimental condition. For example, you might study the effects of having the radio on when people work on an assembly line…you’d collect data from the same group of workers twice, once with the radio on and once with it off.  Researchers can also manipulate more than one IV to see what the combined effect is…sometimes, the effect of one variable depends on the effect of another…for example, you might find that having the radio on increases productivity in workers, but only in the morning…in this example, time of day interacts with the effects of the radio.

11.  Researchers can also use more than one dependent variable in a single study to get a more complete picture of the effect of the independent variable. For example, we might measure not only the amount of work employees in a factory finish when music is playing while they work compared to when there is no music, but we could also measure worker satisfaction, absenteeism, and attitude. Having one day less a month of absenteeism might make up for a slight decrease in productivity.  The main advantage of these techniques is that they reduce extraneous variables and other types of participant bias.

12.  Findings are shared through reports at scientific meetings and in scholarly journals – periodicals that publish technical and scholarly material that is peer reviewed. In this way others can evaluate new research findings and build new ideas.  Research methods are general strategies for conducting scientific studies. Using the scientific approach, scientists state exactly what they are observing and measuring which results in clarity of communication. The scientific method also yields more accurate and dependable information than, for example, mere speculation.

13. Figure 2.6 The basic elements of an experiment

14.  Ex post facto research occurs when a researcher isn’t able to directly manipulate the IV because of logistical, legal, and/or ethical reasons. For example, I may want to examine the effects of early teen heroin addiction on future adult earnings. Would it be legal/ethical for me to get a group of 50 early teens and get them addicted to heroin to see what happens 20 years later? Obviously, I have to instead find teenagers who have already become addicted to heroin before interacting with me. In other words, my research begins after the fact of the IV being manipulated. Hence the name ex post facto research.

15.  Naturalistic observation occurs when a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects. It is unobtrusive, in other words, or non- interfering. The strength is that a researcher sees the subjects behaving the way they naturally behave – nothing is artificial or contrived, rather what they observe is very real. Participant observational research is different; the researcher actually joins the group he/she is studying in order to get a more intimate perspective of the group. Instead of remaining apart (unobtrusive), the researcher actually becomes a group member.  A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual subject. Clinicians use this method to gather a profile of a client in order to try and understand them better, which will enable a more effective therapeutic interaction.

16.  In a survey, researchers use questionnaires or interviews to obtain specific information about subjects’ behavior. Famous examples include the Kinsey Reports on “normal” sexual behavior conducted in the 1930’s through the 1950’s at Indiana University and, for a more modern example, Cooper’s internet survey (1999) which attempted to determine how much time people spend on online sexual pursuits. He conducted an online questionnaire that was posted for seven weeks that invited internet sex purchaser to participate. A self-selected sample such as this is probably not representative of the population of the U.S., but it probably was representative of those who visit sexually explicit websites, mainly young males.  Descriptive/Correlational methods allow researchers to discover links or associations between variables, but these links do not imply causation.

17.  For observational research, the main problem is the subjectivity of the research. An observer, the researcher, takes notes on what he/she sees and takes from the observation. Different people may observe the same exact subjects yet come to very different conclusions about their behavior.  With case studies, the information gathered is then subjectively analyzed. That subjectivity can be problematic (see example above). Also, case studies cannot be extrapolated to a larger group, as the findings can only apply to the individual the case study researcher compiled information on, so it is limited.  The survey has a wide array of problems. Response sets, social desirability bias, non representative samples, and low response rates represent big problems. However, surveys are cheap, easy to administer, and allow a researcher to compile a large amount of data very rapidly.

18.  Sampling bias occurs when the sample is not representative of the population to be studied. Small sample size, a poorly collected sample, even bad luck at times can play a role.  Placebo effects can happen and affect results. A subject’s mind can play tricks, using placebos can backfire when a participant’s expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment…cured by a sugar pill.

19. › Social desirability bias is a tendency to give socially approved answers to sensitive questions about oneself. › Response set refers to a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way (agree with everything, click on strongly agree for every survey question, etc.). › Experimenter bias happens when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study (or pre-existing knowledge of the participants) influence the results obtained. Researchers are human and usually have something on the line if they can prove their hypothesis, so sometimes they see what they want to see, make errors in favor of their hypothesis, etc. Similarly, researchers may unintentionally influence the behavior of their subjects, possibly through body language, smiles, etc. To control for this problem, a double-blind procedure in which neither the subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental and control groups can be implemented.

20.  Participant bias is a tendency for research participants to behave in a certain way because they know they are being observed or they believe they know what the researcher wants and attempt to act the way they think they’re supposed to act. › The Hawthorne Effect is the fact that people behave differently simply because they know they are a part of an experiment or research study, which creates participant bias. › Single blind/Double blind designs help to combat participant and experimenter bias. The double blind was discussed on the previous slide – a single blind occurs when the subjects are kept blind as to what group they are in, but the experimenter is not. › Counterbalancing was discussed on slide #10. It also is used to reduce participant bias.

21. Figure 2.16 The relationship between the population and the sample

22.  The process of publishing scientific studies allows other experts to evaluate and critique new research findings and keeps scientific progress flowing as others will replicate the research to see if they get the same results, or perhaps change some variables to see what other effects may be created. They share their findings through reports at scientific meetings and in scientific journals. In this way others can evaluate new research findings and build new ideas.  They carefully evaluate each study’s methods, statistical analyses, and conclusions, as well as its contribution to knowledge and theory.  The purpose of the peer review process is to ensure that journals publish reliable findings based on high-quality research.

23. Figure 2.4 The peer review process for journal submissions.

24.  The question of deception: Is it OK to make subjects think they are hurting others? Have homosexual tendencies? Think they are overhearing negative comments about themselves? If deception has any chance of causing physical or psychological harm to subjects, the researcher must gain informed consent from the subjects, which basically nullifies the deception.  The question of animal research: There is great controversy regarding whether mere humane treatment of animals is ok. Many feel that animals should never be used in research.  These and other ethical issues have led the American Psychological Association (APA) to develop a set of ethical standards for research, to ensure that both human and animal subjects are treated with dignity. The next slide goes into detail regarding these ethical rules for animals and humans in research. Know the following slide – ethics has become a very important issue on the AP exam!!!

25. Figure 2.17 Ethics in research