2. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Enger & Smith Environmental Science A Study of Interrelationships Eleventh Edition Chapter 12 Land-Use Planning

4. Outline  The Need for Planning  Historical Forces That Shaped Land Use in North America  Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs  Factors That Contribute to Sprawl  Problems Associated with Unplanned Urban Growth

5. Outline  Land-Use Planning Principles  Mechanisms for Implementing Land-Use Plans  Special Urban Planning Issues  Federal Government Land-Use Issues

6. The Need For Planning  Most of the earth’s surface has been changed by human activities as people convert land to agriculture & grazing, as well as covering it with buildings, streets, highways & other products of society.  Between one-third and one-half of the world’s surface has been altered by humans.  Most land-use decisions are still based primarily on economic considerations or short-term needs rather than on unique analysis of the landscape.  Once land has been converted to intensive human use, it is generally unavailable for other uses.

7. Each piece of land has specific qualities based on location & physical makeup. Land is nonrenewable resource & 0nce has been converted to intensive human use, it is generally unavailable for other uses. As popn increases, competition for land use increases and planning for systematic land use become more important.

8. Historical Forces That Shaped Land Use in North America  Present land use in the United States vs Canada: 47% - Crops and livestock8% 45% - Forests and natural areas54% 5% - Intensive human use1%  This pattern of land use differs greatly from original conditions experienced by immigrants from New World.

9. Historical Forces That Shaped Land Use in North America  The first U.S. colonists converted landscape to farming, and then to towns and cities.  But as the popn increased more land was converted to agriculture & settlements & villages grew to cities & towns.  Waterways provided the primary method of transportation. This allowed exploration and development of commerce. Early towns were usually built near water and at transfer points between water systems.

10. Early towns usually built near water and at transfer points between water systems. Bodies of water also provided drinking water, power & waste disposal for these cities. Towns near water could readily receive raw materials & distribute manufactured goods. Availability of minerals, good farmland or forests was also important in determining where villages and towns were established.

11. Historical Forces That Shaped Land Use in North America Water and urban centers Most of the large urban centers are located near water, because provide transportation & was a major factor in the growth of cities.

12. Historical Forces That Shaped Land Use in North America  North America remained essentially rural until industrial growth began in last third of the 1800s.  Cities grew because of: Industrial Revolution –People migrated from farms to industrial jobs found in cities. European immigrants Few were farmers & majority Congregated in, and subdivided cities. –These Cities Offered variety of cultural, social, and artistic opportunities. San Antonio, Las Vegas, are examples of cities developing around unique cultural attractions.

13. Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs  In the early stages of the Industrial Revolution, a lack of control over industry activities led to polluted, undesirable waterways.  As roads and rail transport became more common, many left the waterway areas. Agricultural land surrounding towns was converted to housing. Land began to be viewed as a commodity, not as a non- renewable resource to be managed. –As long as money could be make by converting agriculture land to other purposes, it was impossible to prevent it.

14. Suburb Migration  Farms used to be near towns, as popn increased, near land was ideal for expansion of city.  As land prices in the city rose, people began to look for cheaper areas away from the city.  Conversion of land destroyed many natural areas that people enjoyed for long.  Sunday drive from city to the countryside became more difficult as people had to drive further to escape the ever growing suburbs.  As industries grew, city’s center became less desirable for living bec of increased poln.

15. Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs  As cities grew, certain sections within each city began to deteriorate.  Pollution and crowding made cities undesirable places to live.  In the early 1900s, people who could afford to move out of cities began to do so.  Then developers started building affordable houses outside, away from congested cities, people started working in the city and living in the country.  Cheap land, oil, & gas made driving easy. 1950 - 60% urban population lived in central cities. 1990 - 30% urban population lived in central cities.

16. Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs Rural-to-urban population shift In 1800 US was essentially a rural country. Industrialization increased urban popn. In 2000, 80% of US popn was urban.

17. Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs Rural-to-urban population shift

18. Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs  Since houses were spread out & decentralized, it was very difficult to establish efficient public transportation.  The convenience of a personal automobile escalated decentralized housing patterns and diminished importance of mass transit. This led to decreased energy efficiency. It increased the cost of supplying utility services.

19. Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs  By 1960’s, unplanned suburban growth become to known as Urban sprawl is a pattern of unplanned, low-density housing and commercial development outside of cities. Land-use practices are fundamental to sustainability. Two practices that have contributed to urban sprawl are: –Zoning ordinances that isolate employment and shopping services away from housing locations. –Low-density planning aimed at creating automobile access to increasing expanses of land.

20. Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs  Urban sprawl is defined as auto-dependent development outside of the compact urban & village center, along highways, & in the rural country-side.  Sprawl is typically characterized by: Excessive land consumption Low densities in comparison with older centers Lack of choice in ways to travel Fragmented open space, wide gaps in development, and a scattered appearance. Lack of choice in housing types and prices.

21. Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs Separation of uses into distinct areas. Repetitive one-story development. Commercial buildings surrounded by large parking areas. Lack of public spaces and community centers.

22. Fragmented open spaces, wide gaps between development & a scattered appearance Lack of choice in housing types & prices Separation of uses into distinct areas Repetitive one-story development Commercial building surrounded by large areas for parking Lack of public spaces & community centers

23. Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs  Urban sprawl occurs in three ways: Development of exclusive, wealthy suburbs adjacent to the city. Usually on large individual lots in the more pleasing geographic areas surrounding the city. (water, elevated site..) Tract development is the construction of similar residential units over large areas. Often separated from each other by farmland. Ribbon sprawl consists of commercial / industrial buildings lining highways connecting housing developments to the central city.  A megalopolis is a merging of cities into large, urban areas. –In some areas growth of suburbs has been slowed due to increased cost of housing & transportation. –Those areas are experiencing reverse migration, because of lower cost of urban houses & better public transportation.

24. Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs Types of urban sprawl

25. Migration from the Central City to the Suburbs Regional cities Light in the satellite picture shows popn concentrations. More than 30 major regional cities have developed w each having more than 1 miln people. Many of them merge w their neighbors forming a huge regional cities. Major urban regions are: the northeast coast of the US, region S of the great lakes, S Florida the Toronto & Montreal regions of Canada, & west coast of California.

26. Factors That Contribute to Sprawl  Among the causes of Sprawl are: Public investment in roads, public buildings, water, sewer, and other infrastructure in peripheral areas; disinvestment in existing centers Land-use regulation that promote spread out, land- consumptive development Consumer desire for a rural lifestyle w large-homes and large yards, a safe envt and less traffic congestion

27. Preference of business and industry for easy highway access, plenty of free parking Demands of commercial tenants for particular locations and designs for buildings and sites Other public policies including tax and utility rate policies Higher costs of development in older, traditional centers Lower land prices in peripheral areas Telecommunications advances Commercial lending practices that favor suburban development

28. Factors That Contribute to Sprawl  Lifestyle Increased wealth of population is reflected in material possessions, particularly the automobile and homes. –A decentralized housing pattern is possible because high rate of automobile ownership allows ease of movement. Sprawl impacts our quality of life in several ways: –inc dependency on auto, –inc commuting times & cost, –reduced opportunity for public transportation services, –more time spend in cars & less w family & friends, –loss of a sense of place & community decline

29.  Economic Building on agricultural land is less expensive than to build within established cities. Tax laws encourage home ownership. less regulations & permit requirements less stringent, fewer legal issues to deal w Interest on home loans is deductible, people could avoid paying capital gains taxes on home they sold if bought another of equal or higher value

30. Sprawl impacts the economy: excessive public costs for roads, utility line extensions, & service delivery, decline in economic opportunity in traditional centers, relocation of jobs to peripheral areas far from popn center, premature disinvestments in existing buildings & facilities, isolation of employees from activity centers, home, daycare facilities, & schools, reduced ability to finance public services in urban centers

31. Factors That Contribute to Sprawl  Planning and Policy Historically, there was little coordination of effort as to how cities should develop. –Large cities have a huge number of political jurisdictions, so coordination is difficult. –very difficult for a small local unit of government to see the big picture & many unwilling to give up their autonomy to a regional government body Zoning ordinances prohibit land-use mixing. –Ordinances specify minimum lot and house sizes. Resulting in a decentralized pattern of devlpm Government subsidizes the development of decentralized cities. –Local governments pay some costs of extending services into new areas; costs are not passed on to builders.

32. Sprawl impacts env in several ways: –fragmentation of open space & wildlife habitat, –loss of productive farmland & forestland, –decline in water quality from increased urban runoff, –shoreline devlpm, & loss of wetland, –inability to capitalize on unique cultural, historic & public space resources in urban & village centers

33. Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth  Transportation As cities grew, little thought was given to transportation corridors. Establishment of new corridors stimulates growth in nearby areas, and the new corridors soon become inadequate. –Reliance on automobiles has required constant road building. –In Los Angeles, 70% of city’s surface area dedicated to automobiles compared to 5% for parks & open space. –The average person in the U.S. spends 9 hrs/week in an automobile.

34. Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth  Air Pollution As traffic increases, so does air pollution. Most of the large industrial sources of air poln have been contained but individual cars w its single occupant is a constant source of air poln. A centralized, efficient public transportation system solves this problem, but it is difficult to achieve with a highly dispersed population.  Low Energy Efficiency Automobiles are inefficient transportation. Separation of homes and businesses requires additional driving. Stop-and-go traffic patterns. Single family homes are less efficient than multifamily dwellings.

35. Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth  Loss of Sense of Community In many areas, people do not routinely walk through their neighborhood, leaving them feeling isolated.  Death of the Central City Currently less than 10% of people work in the central city. & when they leave they take their purchasing power & taxes w them so There is less income to support public services & decreases life quality & a decrease in downtown business district.  Higher Infrastructure Costs: infrastructure includes all the physical, social, & economic elements needed to support the popn Extension of municipal services is more costly than supplying services to areas already in the city.

36. Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth  Loss of Open Space Oftentimes open space planning is left out of development plans.  Loss of Farmland Flat, well-drained land is ideal for both farmland and urban development. So areas that once supported crops now support housing devlpm, shopping centers, & parking lots Several states have established programs that provide protection to farmers who do not want to sell their land to developers. –These programs may require farmers to put their land in a conservation easement. in return for lower taxes on the land to put their land in conservation easement that prevents them or future owners from using it for anything other than farming

37. Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth  Water Pollution Problems Bec surface has been paved for parking 4X larger than the building. Large impervious surface areas lead to high runoff and potential flooding.  Floodplain Problems Many cities are located on floodplains because they were originally established along waterways. These are areas near rivers & thus subject to periodic flooding. –The flat land is attractive to developers but would be better put to use as open space or recreation. Development increases economic losses. –Many communities have enacted floodplain zoning ordinances. They are generally –Flat, nutrient rich. They are better to be used for open space or recreational purposes. Development increases economic losses. Bec need building of a retaining wall to prevent future flooding, that boosts cost of devlpm, increases cost of insurance, creates high water problem down stream. –Many communities have enacted floodplain zoning ordinances To restrict future building in floodplains.

38. Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth Flooding in floodplain In New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina

39. Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth  Wetlands Misuse Since access to water was & is important to industrial devlpm, many cities are located in areas w extensive wetlands. Wetlands are areas that periodically are covered with water. Bec wetlands breed mosquitoes & sometimes are barrier to the free movement of people, they have often been considered useless or harmful. Many have been drained, filled, or used as landfills. –U.S. has lost 53% of wetlands since the European immigration began (not including Alaska). –Wetlands play crucial role in reproductive phase of many organisms. –They also provide sediment filtration.

40. –Each kind of wetland has unique qualities & serves as a home to many kinds of plants & animals. –Wetlands play crucial role in reproductive phase of many organisms. »Many fish use estuaries & marshes for spawning, »provide nesting sites for many kinds of birds & as habitat for many other species. »Provide sediment filtration & allows time for water to be biologically cleanse before entering larger bodies of water.

41. Problems Associated with Unplanned Growth  Other Land-Use Considerations Geological status must be considered in land-use decisions. –Building on earthquake-prone faults has led to the loss of life and property. –Building on unstable hillsides and fire-prone areas is also unwise. –Building on Fire-Prone Areas unwise Climate –Building in chronically dry areas leads to water shortages. Water Shortages in some location big problem. Southern California & metropolitan areas in Arizona must import water

42. Land-Use Planning Principles  Land-use planning is a process of evaluating the needs and wants of a population, the land characteristics and value, and various alternative solutions to land uses before changes are made. A basic rule should be to make as few changes as possible.  Ex flood plains besides a river is unsuitable for building permanent structures, can be used for recreational purposes such as parks or even better as a nature preserve.

43.  Agricultural land near cities can be easily converted to housing but may be more valuable for growing fruits & vegetables for people of the city.  Decision process for land used should involve public, private landowners, developers, government, & special interest groups. Basic rule should be to make as few changes as possible.

44. Land-Use Planning Principles  When changes are needed: Evaluate and record unique geological, geographic, and biologic features. & decide if land is good for agriculture or to preserve. Preserve unique cultural or historical features. Such as sacred sites, battlefields, unique historic importance. Conserve open space and environmental features. They are not unused & low-value area. Given a choice, people choose settings w nature which is a deep- seated biological need. Recognize and calculate the cost of additional changes required to accommodate altered land use. Ex need for schools, other municipal services, roads need to be paved & eventually former use of the land is lost. The cost of these becomes the responsibility of the entire community through taxes.

45. Land-Use Planning Principles Plan for mixed uses in close proximity which allows easier connection between uses w/o relying on automobile. Plan for a variety of transportation options. Currently no sidewalks or bike lane. Clustering housing & service area allows for easier planning of bus & rail routes Set limits and require managed growth patterns with compact development. Encourage development in areas with existing infrastructure.

46.  Establish an urban growth limit for a municipality, establishing boundary w/in which devlopm can occur & restrict devlpm outside boundaries.  Encourage development in areas with existing infrastructure.  Make sense to build where there is already infrastructure (electric, sewer, water, phone, banking..).  Vacant lots & abandoned buildings should be renovated or demolished & replaced.

47. Mechanisms for Implementing Land-Use Plans  Land-use planning involve making an orderly list of priorities for the use of available land which involve data gathering on current use & geological, biological, & sociological information.  Successful implementation have three components contributing to its success:  Establish State / Regional Planning Agencies This pattern is more effective than local agencies because political boundaries seldom reflect the geological and biological database used in planning. A regional approach is more likely to prevent duplication of facilities and lead to greater efficiency.  Purchase Land or Use Rights. In many cases, owner may not be willing to sell the land but is willing to limit future uses of the land.

48. Mechanisms for Implementing Land-Use Plans  Regulate Use Zoning is a land-use regulation that restricts the uses to which land in a region can be put. –Often, planners making zoning decisions represent business or developing interests.

49.  Establishing State / Regional Planning Agencies. They are more effective than larger agencies due to more logical natural boundaries. Larger units have diverse collection of landscape resources, can afford to hire professional planner. A regional approach prevents duplication of facilities & increase efficiency (3 cities 20 miles apart not need 3 airports).  One way to encourage regional planning is to develop policies at the state, provincial or national level. First state to do so was Hawaii.  National govn also play important role by designating areas as wilderness, forests, rangelands, or parks and involves balancing national priorities & local desires.  Purchase Land or Use Rights is the simplest way to protect land bec In many cases, owner may be willing to limit future uses of the land instead of selling it.

50. Mechanisms for Implementing Land- Use Plans  Regulate Use when communities are not financially able to purchase lands use. Zoning - Designating land for specific uses. Common designations are agricultural, commercial, residential, recreational, & industrial. Often planners represent business or developing interests which are not unbiased in their decisions. When zoning is not done by trained people, only short term gains are considered.

51. Mechanisms for Implementing Land-Use Plans Zoning

52. Special Urban Planning Issues  Urban Transportation Planning Urban transportation planning usually involves four goals: –Conserve energy and land resources. –Provide efficient and inexpensive transportation, particularly to those who are unable to drive. Target populations: Those unable to drive, elderly, handicapped, young & financially disadvantaged –Provide efficient transportation opportunities to suburban residents. –Reduce urban pollution.

53. Special Urban Planning Issues  Major urban mass transit system are railroad, subways, trolleys & buses.  In some parts of world mass transportation is very efficient & effective.  In US automobile is the primary method of transportation so mass transportation systems are often underfunded.  Mass transit in the U.S. is often underfunded and difficult to establish because: It is only economical along heavily populated routes. It is less convenient than the automobile. It is extremely expensive to build / operate. It is often crowded and uncomfortable.  The U.S. government encourages personal autos by financing highways, maintaining cheap energy policy, and not funding mass-transit projects (hidden subsidies). Mass transit is more successful in geographically smaller regions, and more uniformly dense popn. Only when cost of fuel & parking is too high or driving is inconvenience would N American switch to alternatives.

54. Special Urban Planning Issues Decline of mass transportation Automobile use has increased consistently since 1960, while public transport use has remained low.

55. Special Urban Planning Issues  Nearly three-fourths of the N. American population lives in urban areas to break up from sight & sound of city & it provides place for recreation.  Until recently, urban parks were considered an uneconomical use of land.  A major problem w urban recreation is locating recreational facilities near residential area. Facilities not conveniently located near residential areas may be infrequently used.  A new outgrowth of urbanization is the development of urban nature centers. These are teaching institutions that provide a variety of methods for people to learn about and appreciate the natural world.

56. Re-Development of Inner City Areas  As people moved to the suburbs, the inner city was abandoned, industrial sites vacant, businesses moved to the suburban malls, quality of housing declined, services reduced.  To improve life of people living in cities, cities needed to be revitalize.  Several land-use processes can be used for this.  Many industrial cities are plagued by high cost of cleanup and renovation of brownfields: Vacant industrial and commercial sites. Many have envl contamination & no one is willing to clean them to level required by EPA.

57. Special Urban Planning Issues  Special efforts must be made to revitalize the inner city.  Abandoned industrial and commercial sites remain vacant because they are expensive to clean up and renovate. Brownfield development matches the degree of cleanup required to the intended use of the site. –It is a more realistic approach to clean contamination of these sites, so a site w specific contamination may be developed as a new industrial site/parking, instead of for housing.  Another important focus is remodeling abandoned commercial buildings into shopping centers, cultural facilities, and high-density housing.  Process of revitalization involve extensive planning activities ex in Chattanooga, Tennessee it included the public & private funding, establishment of an electric bus system to alleviate air pollution, renovation of existing housing, redevelopment of old warehouses into a shopping center.

58. Special Urban Planning Issues  Smart growth recognizes benefits of growth. believes neglect of our central cities is fueling the growth & related problems of the suburb. Advocates emphasize developing “livable” cities and towns. –Quality of environment directly affects quality of life. –Though they support growth, communities are questioning economic cost of abandoning infrastructure in city & rebuilding it further out. –Smart growth recognizes benefits of growth. –It invests time, attention, & resources in restoring a sense of community & vitality to center cities & older suburbs.

59. Special Urban Planning Issues  One aspect of smart growth is the building of “green buildings.”  Green buildings are built using a standard called Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED).  The guidelines call for using recycled materials, ensuring better ventilation in buildings, reducing water and energy use, and other goals.

60. Special Urban Planning Issues  Characteristics of high-performance green building are: Located near public transportation Preserve natural habitat around the building Lights and other electronic devices are timed to reduce energy use. Native vegetation is used for landscaping.

61. Special Urban Planning Issues  Characteristics of high-performance green building are: Low-water-flow fixtures are installed on faucets. Buildings’ energy use is tested by an outside expert. Products used do not contribute to ozone layer depletion. Occupants have outside views, including natural day lighting of work surfaces.

62. Smart Growth  Smart Growth Principles Mix land uses. Take advantage of compact building designs. Create range of housing opportunities. Create walkable neighborhoods. Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place.

63. Smart Growth Principles Preserve open space and critical environmental areas. Strengthen development of existing areas. Provide variety of transportation choices. Make fair, cost-effective decisions. Encourage community and stockholders collaboration in development decisions. Smart growth provide choices & seeks to build on proven successes.

64. Special Urban Planning Issues  Smart Growth Principles: Mix land uses. Take advantage of compact building designs. Create range of housing opportunities and choices. Create walkable neighborhoods. Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place.

65. Special Urban Planning Issues Preserve open space, farmland, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas. Strengthen and direct development of existing areas. Provide a variety of transportation choices. Make fair, predictable, cost-effective development decisions. Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions.

66. Federal Government Land-Use Issues  Federal government manages large amount of land so laws & regulations that shape land-use policy are important. For ex  The Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act of 1960 divided use of national forests into four categories: –Wildlife habitat preservation –Recreation –Lumbering –Watershed protection This act was designed to encourage both economic & recreational use of the forests. However specific users of this public land are often in conflict; particularly recreational users w timber harvesters.

67. Federal Government Land-Use Issues  An 1872 mining law allows anyone to prospect for minerals on public land and establish a claim if such minerals are discovered.  The miner is then allowed to purchase the rights to extract the mineral for $5 per acre. and keep rights as long as minimal maintenance continued.  Many feel that the law is obsolete, but the law is still in force and public land is still being sold to mining interests at ridiculously low prices.

68. Federal Government Land-Use Issues  Today one of the major uses of public land is for Outdoor Recreation  Many people want to use the natural world for recreational purposes because nature can provide challenges lacking in day-to-day life.  Conflicts develop because some activities cannot occur in the same place at the same time. Ex those want use motorized vehicles & those prefer to use muscle power in their recreational pursuits in same public land. Both  Groups argue that because they pay taxes, they have a right to use it as they wish.

69. Federal Government Land-Use Issues Conflict over recreational use of land.

70. Federal Government Land-Use Issues U.S. federal recreational lands Of 108 miln hectares of federal recreational lands in US, about 10% is designated as wilderness, primitive, or natural.

71. Federal Government Land-Use Issues One solution is to allocate land to specific uses & to regulate the use once allocations are made. Agency Control  Several U.S. agencies, including the National Park Service, the Bureau of Land Management, the Forest Service, and the Fish and Wildlife Service, allocate and regulate the lands they control.  These agencies have conflicting roles. Ex the forest service has a mandate to manage forested public lands for timber production, mandate comes in conflict w recreational uses –Conflicting Roles –Forest Service » Logging vs. Recreation or  Designation of certain lands as wilderness is a sensitive issue.

72. –Bureau of Land Management has huge tracts of land that can be used for recreation, but traditionally has been mandated to manage grazing rights » Grazing vs. Recreation  A particularly sensitive issue is the designation of certain lands as wilderness areas.  If it is designated as such, human activity must be severely restricted.  Many argue it is unfair bec they pay taxes to provide recreation for a select few.  Others argue if everyone use, place loose the charm & unique characteristic.

73. Summary  Waterways served as transportation corridors that allowed for the exploration of new land and for the transport of goods.  Urban centers began as small towns located near water.  Several factors resulted in the shift of the population from rural to urban.  Unregulated industrial development in cities led to degradation of waterfronts and stimulated the development of suburbs.  Many problems have resulted from unplanned growth.

74. Summary  Land-use planning involves gathering data, projecting needs, and developing mechanisms for implementing the plan.  Establishing regional planning agencies, purchasing land or its development rights, and enacting zoning ordinances are ways to implement land-use planning.

75. Summary  Federal governments own and manage large amounts of land, so national policy must be developed.  Often federal policy is a compromise between competing uses and land is managed for multiple uses.