1. CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Assessment Assessing Learners with Special Needs: An Applied Approach Edition 8 Terry Overton Developed by Jennifer Madigan San Jose State University 1

2. Assessment: A Necessary Part of Teaching Testing is one method of assessment used to evaluate student progress, outcomes and needs. Assessment includes many formal and informal methods of evaluating students. 2

3. Response to Intervention (RTI) RTI is a process used when effective research-based interventions are not successful with students. Students may require additional or different assessments or instruction or evaluation for special education support (3-5%). 3

4. Legalities of Assessment IDEA 2004 and NCLB place more emphasis on assessing all students in attaining the standards. Students with exceptionalities are required to take statewide or alternative exams to measure their progress within the general education curriculum. – Educational personnel must make decisions about the type of evaluations, tests and accommodations that might be needed for statewide assessments. Inclusion of students with disabilities within the context of the general education classroom setting, as a mode of service delivery, has increased to more than 52% and will continue to increase. The number of students receiving special education support is increasing, but so is the number of students who graduate with a regular diploma (54.5%). 4

5. Educational Accountability Improving education and achievement for all students, especially for student who are culturally, linguistically, and ethnically diverse. Federal regulations require additional procedures and funding to address the disproportionate number of students from various ethnic groups who are found eligible for special education. – disproportionality- When students from various ethnic or linguistically different groups are under- or overrepresented in receiving special education services. – overrepresentation- When too many students are found to be eligible from a specific ethnic group. 5

6. Cultural Considerations Disproportionate rate of occurrence of some students from various ethnic and cultural backgrounds happens in the disability categories that rely heavily on “clinical judgment,” (e.g., learning disabilities, mild mental retardation, emotional disturbance) Students from homes that fall in the range of poverty and that structurally include a single parent are at increased risk for disabilities. Increased risk for disability in environments that lack resources and support for single parents. Learned behaviors and identity associated with school. 6

7. Assessment in Practice All assessment practices must adhere to legal mandates, ethical standards and basic principles of measurement. School systems and state education agencies are required to collect data to document student achievement. Pre-referral interventions are intended to address bias in the referral process and prevent unnecessary assessments. 7

8. Historical & Contemporary Models of Assessment HISTORICAL MODEL CONTEMPORARY MODEL PROBLEM-SOLVING MODEL  Teacher noticed a student was having difficulty.  Specific deficits that appear to be the cause of a student’s difficulty were identified.  Student was referred to a multidisciplinary team who evaluated the student.  Eligibility was determined.  An individualized education program (IEP) was put in place for eligible students. Outcomes  Increasing rates of children referred for assessment and subsequently receiving special education services.  Emphasizes finding a solution rather than determining eligibility or finding an alternative placement.  Various methods of intervention and assessment are utilized and documented before referral and evaluation for special education services.  Interventions may or may not include special education services. 8

9. Historical Model of Assessment General Education Class Instruction Student not progressing as expected. Student referred to multidisciplinary team. Team completes assessment. Team meeting determines if student is eligible for services. 9

10. Early Intervening Services Address the student’s needs within the general education classroom and prevent additional assessment. Available K-12, with emphasis in grades K-3. Use of research-based practices and documentation. May be included in RTI methods. 10

11. Three-Tier Model of Intervention I. Progress in core academic subjects of all children should be monitored routinely (80-90%). – Statewide assessments, Teacher-made tests, General education performance II. Students who experience difficulty when compared to their peers are considered to be at risk of academic or behavioral problems and then receive tier-two interventions, such as remedial assistance or tutoring using research-based interventions (5-10%). III. Students not successful with tier-two interventions receive intensive intervention through the teacher assistance team that is specifically designed to address areas of difficulty (1-5%). – If a child continues to struggle, the child may be referred for consideration of an evaluation for possible special education eligibility. 11

12. Caution with EL Students Ideally, the use of intensive and diverse interventions in preventing unnecessary evaluation, misdiagnosis and overidentification. ELLs require additional consideration. – ELLs and/or bilingual education is not a special education service. – Prereferral strategies should promote language acquisition in addition to curriculum. – Language problems must be eliminated as a reason for referral. 12

13. Types of Assessments Informal AssessmentTeacher-made assessments used to determine student progress. Curriculum-based Assessment (CBA) Determines how a student is performing in or mastering the actual curriculum (e.g., chapter tests). Curriculum-based Measurement (CBM) Measures progress of a specific skill against an aim line (e.g., AIMSWeb, DIBELS). Criterion-related AssessmentAssesses a student’s progress on items that are similar to objectives or standards. Criterion-referenced TestAssesses a student’s progress in skill mastery against specific standards. Performance AssessmentStudents create a product that demonstrates their skills or competency. Portfolio AssessmentThe collection of student products to demonstrate progress over a period of time. Dynamic AssessmentDetermines the potential of a student to learn a new skill. Checklist, Rating Scale, Observation Informal assessment that can be tailored for individual students. Used to identify mastery of skill and/or placement in a curriculum. Norm-referenced TestCompares a student’s performance of a task to students of the same age or grade level. Standardized TestTests are structured, provide specific instructions, formats, scoring and interpretation procedures. 13

14. Assessment Uses Error Analysis – Provides insight into learning how a student completes a task. – Look for patterns of errors. High-stakes Testing – Used to monitor progress of schools and districts in the form of an adequate yearly progress (AYP) score. Alternative Assessments – Students with disabilities who are unable to participate in statewide assessments are tested using an alternative assessment. 14

15. Ecological Assessment Environmental Assessment Evaluate the environment to determine influences on the learning process. Reflects a major trend toward assessing students in their natural environments. It is no longer considered acceptable to refer students who have difficulty in the general classroom without interventions unless they appear to be experiencing severe learning or behavioral problems or are in danger of harming themselves or others. 15

16. Ecological Assessment Ecological Assessment Considerations (Messick, 1984): – Are the curricula effective for the majority of the students? – Have the students been adequately taught the curricula? – Is there objective evidence to support that the child has not learned what was taught? – What type of systematic interventions were made to identify the problem and take corrective action? Assessments Components – Physical environment – Classroom behavioral structure – Classroom teacher’s instructional behaviors – Teacher-student interactions – Teacher-target student interactions – Classroom academic structure – Extended learning experiences 16

17. Assessment Plans: Legalities  Once it is determined that a student needs a comprehensive assessment, an individualized assessment plan must be constructed.  The teacher must have documentation to show the student is not making progress despite interventions.  Assessments must be specifically designed to assess areas of concern  Assessments must be validated for the purpose of intended use.  Assessments may only be administered by someone trained to do so.  More than one assessment must be used to determine eligibility.  Follow acceptable and ethical standards (e.g, Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing). 17

18. Individual Assessment Plans It is recommended that an evaluation team follow these steps in preparing an assessment plan (Maxam, Boyer- Stephens, and Alff, 1986) : – Review all of the screening information in each of the seven areas. – Determine what areas need further evaluation. – Determine specific data-collection procedures to use. – The team decides which assessments to give and who will give them. 18

19. The Comprehensive Evaluation Battery of testing instruments is utilized. Standardized and norm-referenced testing is heavily used. An individualized education program (IEP) team reviews the results of the assessments in the eligibility meeting and determines: – What educational changes are needed (alternative planning under 504)? – Is the student eligible for special education services (IEP)? In the event the child referred is 3 years of age or younger and eligibility for services has been determined, the law requires that an Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP) be developed by the team members and parents. – The IFSP differs from the IEP in that the family’s needs as well as the child’s needs are addressed. 19

20. Strategies to Reduce Disproportionality Ensure that staff knows the requirements and criteria for referral and is kept abreast of current research affecting the process. Check that the student’s general education program uses instructional strategies appropriate for the individual, has been adjusted to address the student’s area of difficulty, includes ongoing communication with the student’s family, and reflects a culturally responsive learning environment. Involve families in the decision to refer to special education in ways that are sensitive to the family’s cultural background. Use only tests and procedures that are technically acceptable and culturally and linguistically appropriate. Testing personnel should have had training in conducting these particular assessments and interpreting the results in a culturally responsive manner. Personnel who understand how racial, ethnic, and other factors influence student performance should be included in the eligibility decision. When eligibility is first established, a set of firm standards for the student’s progress and readiness to exit special education should be recorded. 20

21. Research & Issues The effectiveness of earlier special education programs in previous years proved to have mixed results and this contributed to the inclusion of students with exceptional learning needs in the general education curriculum and setting. Research suggests referral practices in the past were inconsistent and may have been contributing to bias in the referral, assessment, and eligibility process. A teacher’s decision to refer may be influenced by the student’s having a sibling who has had school problems as well as by the referring teacher’s tolerance for certain student behaviors; the teacher with a low tolerance for particular behaviors may more readily refer students exhibiting those behaviors. Early research indicated that nationwide more than 90% of the students referred for evaluation were tested. Of those tested, 73% were subsequently found eligible for services in special education. Studies have found success in preventing inappropriate referrals by employing a problem-solving model. 21