1. Created by; Kevin Bowen & Ian Purves ©2005 Model Making

2. The use of model making in design Model making plays a vital role in the process of designing. At every stage of design, from conception to completion, the construction of three dimensional models provides the student/designer with the mechanism to clarify and to develop their ideas and, just as importantly to convey these ideas to their colleagues in the design development team.

3. So models can be used to: Designers produce a variety of types of models, each with a specific purpose. It must be made clear why and when models are made, how the operate in conjunction with other design techniques and the variety of materials which can be used for modelling. develop ideas evaluate and test ideas and design issues communicate ideas

4. A model is used as it is more effective at communicating ideas than a drawing, because it is tangible, an object's size, form, surface, texture, colour, finish, and even its weight and balance can all be assessed from the model. The model allows a designer to experiment with different ideas before going to the expense of manufacturing the final product. There are several different types of models often with more than one name. The following is a list of different types of models used: What is a model used for ?

5. Simple Sketch Models are used for testing numerous ideas early on in the design process. This is the simplest, cheapest and quickest way of evaluating many ideas for form, technical arrangement and usability but highly under-utilised. These are made from a variety of materials such as card, clay, polystyrene, balsa, wire, plaster of Paris, blocks of wood. These models are developed like 3D sketches Simple Sketch Models

7. Block Models are primarily for early testing of usability, ergonomics and form. They are useful to quickly evaluate a product's physical arrangement. Models can be made out of paper, card, foam, wood or other easy to work and cheap materials. Block Models

8. It can be difficult time-consuming and expensive to produce full size models, and in the case of architecture and interior design, impossible. For these reasons scale models are used to develop ideas or convey them to clients. Scale models must be carefully constructed so that the length, width and thickness of the parts are accurately represented Scale Models

9. Ergonomic test rigs are often constructed to test factors such as strength and ergonomics or to evaluate the feasibility of a new mechanism. The use of test rigs is often vital to the eventual success of the project. Ergonomic Test Rigs

10. Presentation/Appearance Models are used to enable evaluation of visual and form aspects. They are produced to look as realistic as possible and are good for testing product feel and form. Presentation models are ideal for use in focus groups, trade shows and other sales and marketing activities. These models demonstrate the final appearance of the design in every visual detail. Although it looks like the real thing the finished model will not work. Presentation/Appearance Models

11. The appearance of three dimensional objects can be generated on a computer as a substitute for physical models or drawings. Images can be coloured, textured, and rotated so that the design can be viewed from any angle. 3D CAD models are used to evaluate overall form, assembly sequence and production issues. And are often photo realistic. They are excellent to gain support and buy in from senior management but again there is a danger of thinking that the product is 'finished'. 3D CAD Models

12. Rapid Prototyping is an "additive" process, combining layers of paper, wax, or plastic to create a solid object. In contrast to most machining processes i.e. milling, drilling, grinding, which are "subtractive" processes that remove material from a solid block. RP ’ s additive nature allows it to create objects with complicated internal features that cannot be manufactured by other means. Concept modelling: Three Dimensional Printer Model Fused Deposition Model Rapid Prototyping

13. Production Prototypes are full-scale models, virtually indistinguishable from the design outcome. They are fully working models, which are as close to the final product as possible; they are "one-offs" made by hand before the decision is made to manufacture the product they are used to evaluate performance, function, form and use. Production Prototyping

14. SOURCE: 'Making Sense of Models' exhibition, Young Designers Centre, The Design Council, London, 1991-92 NOTES: Sketch models, made from epoxy resin blocks, were used to test the size and visual appearance of the various design proposals. The models were produced quickly but to a high standard, which ensured that they demonstrated clearly the proposed ideas to the client. At this stage the models were presented in white to focus attention on the shape and form. TITLE: A range of sketch models for Dancall 5000 'phone DESIGNER: Moggridge Associates MANUFACTURER: Dancall DATE: 1986

15. SOURCE: 'Making Sense of Models' exhibition, Young Designers Centre, The Design Council, London, 1991-92 NOTES: Seymour Powell employed professional modelmakers to build this model because they could not construct a model of this size in their studio. The model was built to Seymour Powell's design specifications. It was constructed using a wooden frame, with a cladding of plywood, finished with a coating of fibreglass. TITLE: Full size model for InterCity 250 under construction DESIGNER: Seymour Powell DATE: 1990

16. It is a full-size accurate representation of the first four metres of the train and provided a working model internally and externally. It allowed the client and designer to accurately assess the design proposal before proceeding to manufacture, where if problems were discovered, alterations would be extremely costly. TITLE: Full size model for InterCity 250 under construction DESIGNER: Seymour Powell DATE: 1990

17. SOURCE: 'Making Sense of Models' exhibition, Young Designers Centre, The Design Council, London, 1991-92 NOTES: Ergonomic test rigs were constructed to help in the development of the cab interior. The rigs enabled the designers to work with British Rail staff to ensure the correct height and position of the driver's chair and control panel. The model was made from plywood and cardboard, which meant it could be made quickly and cheaply. TITLE: Trial of ergonomic test-rig for InterCity 250 cab interior DESIGNER: Seymour Powell DATE: 1990

18. SOURCE: 'Making Sense of Models' exhibition, Young Designers Centre, The Design Council, London, 1991-92 NOTES: Ana's final model, incorporating scale figures shown using the bin, demonstrates her concern for the accessibility of her design. This model was used mainly as a presentation tool, but it is also provided a working model which could be used to demonstrate how the bin could be emptied. TITLE: litter bin model DESIGNER: Ana Mota - 2nd Year BA (Hons) Furniture and Product Design, Ravensbourne College of Design and Communication DATE: 1991 Presentation drawing

19. SOURCE: 'Making Sense of Models' exhibition, Young Designers Centre, The Design Council, London, 1991-92 NOTES: The method of fastening the plates to the post has been worked out and is reflected in this model. It had to be an adjustable system so that the post could be adapted to hold different pieces of information throughout the year. The plates slot easily into an aluminium extrusion at the back of the post and are held in place by a brass pediment. TITLE: Full-size model of the information post DESIGNER: Tanja Nutt - 2nd Year BA (Hons) Furniture and Product Design, Ravensbourne College of Design and Communication DATE: 1991

20. SOURCE: 'Making Sense of Models' exhibition, Young Designers Centre, The Design Council, London, 1991-92 NOTES: Having refined their initial design, the two students produced this visual and ergonomic test model. The materials used were all selected for the speed and ease with which they could be worked, including a piece of drainpipe for the arm rest! Some test software was fitted to the model at this stage including an electronic logic system connected to the display unit which would help assess patients' reactions to visual commands and their use of controls. TITLE: Visual and ergonomic test model of medical diagnostic unit DESIGNER: Peter Hudson & John Cocksedge - 1st Year MA Industrial Design, Manchester Polytechnic DATE: 1991

21. SOURCE: 'Making Sense of Models' exhibition, Young Designers Centre, The Design Council, London, 1991-92 NOTES: Mike created a computer model in scale with a human figure to evaluate the design and ergonomics effectively. TITLE: Warwick Power Washer DESIGNER: Mike Ayre - Final Year MDes (RCA) Industrial Design, Royal College of Art DATE: 1991

22. The reliability of a model can be defined as how accurately the model represents either functionality (or performance), appearance, manufacturability or usability. A model with high reliability will closely imitate the characteristics of the final production item. There is a trade off between reliability and cost, typically, the greater the reliability, the higher the cost.

23. Type of modelFunction/PerformanceAppearanceManufacturabilityUsabilityCost Sketch Model LowLow/mediumLow Block Model MediumMedium/HighMediumMedium/HighLow/Medium Scale Model LowMedium/HighHighMediumMedium/High Ergonomic Test Rig HighLowHigh Presentation or Appearance Model High Medium/HighHigh 3D CAD Model MediumHighMedium/HighLow Rapid Prototyping LowHigh Production Prototype High The table below illustrates how cost and reliability relate to the different types of model:

24. Things to think about when modelling: Why are you making a model ? What do you want the model to achieve ? Who is the model for – you, client or your colleagues ? Is making a model the most appropriate way to achieve your goal ? Would a sketch or drawing be quicker, cheaper or more effective ? What scale should it be ? What are the most appropriate materials for the model and why ? Are there any special skills or tools required to use the selected materials ? Does the model need a high standard of finish ? How will the model be used after it ’ s completion ? How can you use the model to develop your design ? How can you use 2-D sketches and drawings to develop 3-D models ? Should you photograph the models in case they deteriorate ?