1. World Languages Families (Trees) (163-173) This Lecture reviews: Another domain of Historical linguistics which deals with: - The Methods of classifying the world related languages - How family trees established.

2. Language family classification: There are more than 250 LF the next side shows where these families are found and how many of them in each region.as follow: ------------------------------- *LF: (language families)

3. Some Languages Families around the World AreasNumber of language familiesNumber of Languages Americas1502000 New Guinea60750.800 Australia26250 Africa202500 Europe+ Asia3718(Isolate) Europe3 surviving familiesIndo European- Uralic- Basque

4. Sino- Tibetan is and its important families: This language is spoken by more people than others, it nearly ‘ languages as recent linguistics research found(25 years ago) Other scholars with Chinese scholars add Hmong-Mie(Mao-Yao) and Tai- Kadai to the family. Other limit it to Chinese and Tibeto- Burman Languages.

5. Next: The following are a few of the better known families that found thro’ comparative Linguistics:P:164 as follows in the next slide:

6. The following are a few of the better known families. (See all (P:164) LanguagePlaceNumberLevel Algonquian الجونكون N. USA35v. advanced Athabascan اثاباسكان N. USA30Relatively good Austronesian استرونيشن 800“”” BantuN. Africa400Much moderate Berber/S. Africa60Much needed CaribbeanS. USA60much needed ChadiAfrica140Work needed Hmong- MienMiao- Yao15Much needed Endo- Europeaninclude25 Romance L. many Iranian and indic 85 Europe The most studied L of all families MayanMexico+ central America 31Very advanced

7. Terminology used to group language families and subgrouping: The Terms 1.Subgrouping( internal subfamily) 2.Language families 3.Linguistics classification 4. Dialect 5. Exotic إكزوتك ) 6. Language 7. Adding (an) to names 8. Genetic unit 9. An isolate 10. Different magnitude Meaning 1.The branches of a L. families(sisters) 2.A group of genetically related Ls. 3. labels or entities given by linguists to thegreater or lesser Ls. Relations 4. Regional or social language 5. Little known- minority L.(strange) 6. Is a linguistics entity 7. To link a languages with nations 8. Refer to L family (isolate) 9. L with no known relatives(single) 10. Different time depths (Ls: means Languages)

8. Terms (P:166) Terms 11. Proto 12. Phylum فولم 13. Postulated family Meaning 11.Name Given to subgroup L. family. 12. stock- macro LF 13. When they fail to propose a family for a language.

9. 6.4 How to Draw(classify) a Family trees (or Subgrouping a.language)(P:166) Definition: Is to classify or determine which sister languages are most closely related to one another and put it into 2 or more daughter languages (see Indo- European family tree on P:168) Fro examples: “the original language consists of (Proto- languages”

10. Shape 3: Top Language Families

11. By breaking the original proto L came the daughters as follows: shape 1 Original Lang. Proto daughters

12. Examples 2: shape 2 Proto romance Western romance Spanish- Portuguese French.etc

13. That means the proto languages that spilt from the original language, also spilt into daughters and daughters spilt into new branches for example: Proto romance To western romance and this to subgroup (Spanish- Portuguese…) This lead to the definition of subgrouping as in the next slide:

14. Is all daughters that descended from ancestors(as proto language and this also has at least one sister– it descended from ancestor (original L) for example: English from Proto Germa nic’ this has sisters as: German- Swedish- Islandic And German has daughters: Slavic- Italic-Iranian

15. What are the goals of subgrouping? : -Is to determine or discover which language belong to intermediate parents -Is to determine the family tree for genetically related languages. As given in shape 1-2-3) this is as a result of historical linguistics works. (See another family trees on (P: 168- 169) for more info.

16. What the most standard criteria for grouping languages?? The criteria is Shared innovation. What is it? It is the linguistics changes which shows a departure of some trait (characters) proto- language and is shared by a subset of the daughter languages. (look at Mayan tree- figure 3- P:171) also, it is: It is inherited as a result of a change which took place in a single daughter language, then it diversified دايفرسي فايد ))into daughter of its own.

17. The following table shows the sound changes in Mayan which is Innovation shared: beforeafter wb g b h r t E o Q ing hy?TCIuKnhy?TCIuKn

18. Innovation in morphology and syntax as important same as on phonology innovation. Note

19. shared retention(storing) is : It is something that different daughter language inherit unchanged from the proto- languages. As Huastec and Mam )in figure 6.3 P:171:are belong to separate branch of family --- retain or shared the vowel length contrast – and also for e.g. (q> k>)(k>q) place in Huastec Also some sound change as ts>s

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