1. Qualitative Methods Field Research 1.Participant observation 2.Intensive interview 3.Focus groups 4.Qualitative analysis Content Analysis 1.Units of analysis 2.Coding and sampling

2. Features of Qualitative Research Exploratory purpose Focus on natural behavior Emphasis on subjective experience Examination of context, environment Inductive methods Idiographic explanation Awareness of researcher’s role

3. Participant Observation Degrees of participation: Complete observer (less researcher effect) Participant observer (limited participation) Complete participant (may conceal identity)

4. Should I participate? Advantages 1. Deeper insight, under- standing. 2. Better access to group and members. 3. May get to know group members better. Disadvantages 1. May affect group behavior or processes. 2. May prevent asking questions, taking notes. 3. May lead to loss of objectivity. 4. May be unethical if identity is concealed.

5. Gaining Entry and Building Relationships May use key individual or informant. May require a plausible explanation. Don’t be aggressive, insensitive Maintain some distance Expect conflicts; don’t take sides

6. Sampling in field research Non-probability methods; not mathematical; may overlap Theoretical sample – what comparisons or groups are suggested by my theory? Purposive (judgmental) sample – deliberately sample different positions, points of view Snowball sample – ask each member to introduce you to someone else Quota sample – predetermined number of people with certain characteristics. Deviant cases – outsiders’ point of view Experience sample – randomly ask people what they are doing or thinking (may use pager).

7. Taking Notes Electronic or pencil and paper Prepare forms in advance May be surreptitious Notes should include: Setting or context Methodology Observations: “Facts” Interpretations: separate from facts Transcribe ASAP

8. Possible Ethical Problems in Field Observation Voluntary participation Informed consent Confidentiality No harm to participants

9. Intensive (Unstructured) Interview No standardized questions – open-ended “Directed conversation;” can flow freely R’s answer in own words Exact words must be recorded Interviewer can use probes freely May be combined with observation.

10. Focus Groups Groups formed by researcher. Not a representative sample. Usually 7-10 people. Discussion of specific topic or problem. Used in marketing, politics, businesses, organizations.

11. Analysis of qualitative data Documentation – Transcribing notes into text form Organizing: –Conceptualization: understanding meanings –Coding and categorizing: find themes, patterns, types;

12. Analysis of qualitative data What to look for: Themes Patterns Types Categories Generalization may lead to theory (“grounded theory”) History of processes, development over time “Empirical Generalization”

13. Analysis of qualitative data Examine relationships and display data –Tables, diagrams, flowcharts Authenticate evidence –Credibility, corroboration Be reflexive –Must be aware of own role, own interpretation

14. Alternative Approaches Ethnography – study of another culture. Naturalistic, anthropological, how people see their own world – focus on description. Ethnomethodology – how participants “create reality.” More distance from participants – focus on process Others: Narrative and conversation analysis, case studies, visual sociology

15. Software for qualitative analysis Reads text files (field notes) Researcher selects text – codes into categories Program uses codes to Pull out cases in a category Count cases in a category Review text segments Sort and classify

16. Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Research Deeper understanding Rich description, detail Inexpensive Flexible Limited generalizability Subjectivity WeaknessesStrengths