1. Thars Gold in Them Thar Hills AP Environmental Science

2. Earth's three major concentric zones Core Mantle asthenosphere Lithosphere Crust

3. Fig. 15-3, p. 337 Spreading center Ocean trench Plate movement Subduction zone Oceanic crust Continental crust Material cools as it reaches the outer mantle Cold dense material falls back through mantle Hot material rising through the mantle Mantle convection cell Two plates move towards each other. One is subducted back into the mantle on a falling convection current. Mantle Hot outer core Inner core Plate movement Collision between two continents Tectonic plate Oceanic tectonic plate Oceanic crust

4. Three types of plate boundaries Divergent plate boundaries – Plates move apart from one another Convergent plate boundaries – Internal forces push two plates together Transform faults – Plates slide and grind past one another along a fault line

5. Divergent plate boundaries

6. Convergent plate boundaries

7. Transform fault

11. Natural geologic hazards Earthquakes Volcanoes Tsunamis

12. How tsunamis occur

13. External processes shaping the earth Weathering Physical or mechanical weathering Chemical weathering Biological weathering Erosion Flowing streams and rain Wind Glaciers Mass wasting Rockslides, landslides, mudslides

14. Rocks shaped by glaciers

15. Yosemite Valley shaped by a glacier

16. Valley of Fire in New Mexico created by lave seeping out of the ground

17. Three types of rock Igneous – Granite, lava rock Sedimentary – Sandstone, shale, dolomite, limestone, lignite, bituminous coal Metamorphic – Anthracite, shale, marble

18. Igneous rock Forms below earth’s surface, when molten rock comes up from the upper mantle, cools, and hardens

19. Sedimentary rock Forms from sediments deposited in layers which accumulate over time – the weight and pressure “cements” these layers together

20. Metamorphic rock Forms when preexisting rock is subjected to high temperatures, high pressures, chemically active fluids, or a combination of these agents

21. Rock cycle Interaction of physical and chemical processes Recycles the earth three types of rocks Slowest of earth’s cyclic processes Concentrates the planet’s nonrenewable minerals Without it we would not exist

23. Mineral resource – concentration of naturally occurring material in or on the Earth’s crust that can be extracted and processed into useful materials at an affordable cost

24. Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Metallic mineral resources Iron, copper, and aluminum Nonmetallic mineral resources Salt, gypsum, phosphates, water, and soil Energy resources Coal, oil, natural gas, and uranium

25. Ore – rock containing enough of one or more metallic minerals to be mined profitably High-grade ore vs. low-grade ore Reserves – identified resources from which a usable nonrenewable mineral can be extracted profitably at current prices

26. Global Outlook: Mineral Resource Distribution United States, Canada, Russia, South Africa, and Australia supply most of the nonrenewable mineral resources used by modern societies United States, Germany, and Russia consume about 75% of the world’s most widely used metals Japan virtually has no metal resources

27. Nonrenewable Mineral Resources in the United States Depleted some of its metal resources – lead, aluminum, and iron Depends on imports of 24 of its 42 most important nonrenewable mineral resources No manganese, cobalt, chromium, and platinum reserves –essential for economy and military (without these there are no planes, jet engines, automobiles, satellites, sophisticated weapons, and home appliances)

28. SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCES The future supply of a resource depends on its affordable supply and how rapidly that supply is used. A rising price for a scarce mineral resource can increase supplies and encourage more efficient use.

29. SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCES Depletion curves for a renewable resource using three sets of assumptions. – Dashed vertical lines represent times when 80% depletion occurs.

30. Ores (result of several internal and external geologic processes) Plate tectonics Magma Hydrothermal process Manganese nodules

31. Manganese Nodules Potato-size Contain 30 – 40% manganese by weight Also contain iron, copper, and nickel Cover about 25 – 50% of the Pacific Ocean floor Can be sucked up or scooped up – what are the environmental impacts?

32. How are buried mineral deposits found? Remote sensing – aerial photos and satellite images Planes with radiation measuring equipment and magnetometer Drilling deep wells Sensors in already dug wells Seismic surveys Chemical analysis

33. Mining Extraction Techniques Surface mining – equipment strips away the overburden of soil and rock and discards as spoil Subsurface mining – underground In-situ leaching –flush out desired mineral

34. Bucket-wheel Excavator

35. Types of Surface Mining Open-pit mining Dredging Area strip mining Contour strip mining Mountaintop removal

36. Open-pit diamond mine

37. Open-pit diamond mine in Canada – have you seen Ice Road Truckers

38. Open-pit copper mine in Silver City, New Mexico

39. Strip mining

41. Contour strip mining for coal

42. Dredging

43. Mountaintop Removal Machinery removes the tops of mountains to expose coal. The resulting waste rock and dirt are dumped into the streams and valleys below.

44. Subsurface mining disturbs less than one-tenth as much land as surface mining and usually produces less waste material.

45. Hazards of Subsurface Mining Collapse of roofs and walls Explosions of dust and natural gas Lung diseases

46. Hazards of mining coal – dust of coal can ignite

47. In-situ leaching – small holes are drilled and a water-based chemical solvent is used to flush out desired minerals

48. In-situ Leaching Waste rock is minimal Safer for miners Less expensive Shorter lead times to production Less surface ground disturbance Less required remediation Toxic chemicals enter groundwater supply

49. Environmental Impacts Scarring and disruption of the land surface Collapse of land above underground mines Wind- or water-caused erosion of toxin laced mining water Acid mine drainage Emissions of toxic chemicals into the atmosphere Exposure of wildlife to toxic mining waste

50. Natural Capital Degradation Extracting, Processing, and Using Nonrenewable Mineral and Energy Resources Steps Environmental effects Mining Disturbed land; mining accidents; health hazards, mine waste dumping, oil spills and blowouts; noise; ugliness; heat Exploration, extraction Processing Solid wastes; radioactive material; air, water, and soil pollution; noise; safety and health hazards; ugliness; heat Transportation, purification, manufacturing Use Noise; ugliness; thermal water pollution; pollution of air, water, and soil; solid and radioactive wastes; safety and health hazards; heat Transportation or transmission to individual user, eventual use, and discarding

51. Acid mine drainage

53. Acid Mine Drainage – occurs when rainwater seeping through a mine or mine wastes carries sulfuric acid to nearby streams and groundwater According to the EPA – mining has polluted about 40% of western watersheds

54. Acid mine drainage

55. Guess what?

56. Sinkholes caused by mine collapse

57. Ore extracted from the Earth’s crust typically has 2 components: 1. Ore mineral containing desired metal 2. Waste material called gangue

58. Removing the gangue from ore produces piles of waste called tailings Particles of toxic metals blown or leached from tailings by rainfall can contaminate surface water and groundwater

59. After gangue has been removed, smelting is used to separate the metal from the other elements in the ore mineral Iron Slag

60. Smelting

61. Smelters emit enormous quantities of air pollutants which damage vegetation and soils in the surrounding area

62. Ducktown Copper Basin in Tennessee – result of copper smelting

63. It takes decades for vegetation to be restored by secondary succession and expensive restoration efforts Copper Basin, TN

64. Smelters also cause water pollution and produce liquid and solid hazardous waste

65. Environmental Drawback to Mining The refinement of these minerals often require extensive energy input About 15.7kW of electricity is used to produce 1 kg of pure aluminum from its ore Recycling aluminum requires only 5% of the energy required to smelt it and generates only 5%of the greenhouse gases

66. We need to Recycle those Aluminum Cans!

67. Cyanide heap leaching – gold ore is heaped into a large pile and a cyanide solution is sprayed on top of the pile As the cyanide percolates downward, the gold leaches out The gold extracted may only be about 0.01% of the total ore processed Liquid waste and other toxins kept in tailing ponds, which eventually leak and enter groundwater supplies

68. Using cyanide to mine gold

69. Solutions Sustainable Use of Nonrenewable Minerals Do not waste mineral resources. Recycle and reuse 60–80% of mineral resources. Include the harmful environmental costs of mining and processing minerals in the prices of items (full- cost pricing). Reduce subsidies for mining mineral resources. Increase subsidies for recycling, reuse, and finding less environmentally harmful substitutes. Redesign manufacturing processes to use less mineral resources and to produce less pollution and waste. Have the mineral-based wastes of one manufacturing process become the raw materials for other processes. Sell services instead of things. Slow population growth.

70. Relevant Environmental Laws U.S. Clean Water Act Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 General Mining Law