1. Grammar Lecture

2. The Usual Culprits The phrases “could of,” “should of,” and “would of” do not exist. Instead, write “could have,” “should have,” and “would have.” (E.g. I could have stayed late, but I did not.) Similarly, something is never “suppose to” have happened. Instead, write “supposed to,” regardless of tense. (E.g. I am supposed to be in class on time.)

3. The Usual Culprits, cont. “They’re” is a contraction of “they” and “are” (e.g. They’re late = they are late.) “Their” indicates possession (e.g. Did you see their cat? = Did you see the cat belonging to them) “There” indicates location (e.g. Your shoes are over there = Your shoes are located …)

4. The Usual Culprits, cont. “Its” indicates possession. E.g. The dog ate its bone. “It’s”, on the other hand, is a contraction of the words “it” and “is.” E.g. It’s a lovely day for a picnic.

5. Word Choice Your choice of words can make or break your essay; so, if you are unsure about a word’s true meaning, do not use that word. Two words with seemingly similar meanings often carry very different connotations. So, don’t select a word that you think is close enough to the idea you’re trying to convey; English is too subtle a language for this to be a good idea.

6. Word Choice, cont. For example, the words “proficient” and “adequate” both imply a certain level of skill. HOWEVER, the two words are not interchangeable. Eg. A “proficient” playwright is skillful and adept. Thus, the word carries a positive connotation. An “adequate” playwright, however, is only acceptable or decent. Thus, the word carries a neutral connotation.

7. Word Choice, cont. Considering context is also important when choosing a word, especially when describing the action of the play or the arguments of scholars. E.g. The words “argument” and “altercation” both imply a dispute of some kind. Does that mean the two words are perfectly interchangeable in all contexts? 1.) Bob Jones presents an interesting altercation in his essay. 2.) Bob Jones presents an interesting argument in his essay.

8. When to Use a Comma? To list elements of a series. E.g. Miranda is young, sheltered, and naïve. To separate 2 independent clauses of a sentence. In such cases, you’ll also need a coordinating conjunction (so, but, and, yet, etc.) E.g. Prospero is generally lenient, so Caliban deserves his punishments.

9. Commas, cont. To set off introductory elements, which set the stage for the action in the sentence. E.g. In The Tempest, characters fight for power. E.g. Almost immediately, Miranda professes her love for the young prince. After transitions E.g. However, Therefore, To set off quoted language E.g. Iago says, “I am not what I am.”

10. Commas, cont. Most importantly, a comma is used to set off parenthetical elements (i.e. added information or interjections, which can be removed without destroying the sentence.) E.g. William Shakespeare, England’s greatest playwright, died relatively young. E.g. Prospero is, of course, a magician.

11. A Capital Idea! Capitalize the first word of a title, as well as every other important word in the title. E.g. An Examination of Masculinity in the Renaissance. Capitalize specific names of historical periods. E.g. the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, etc. Capitalize character names. E.g. Othello, Iago, Desdemona, etc.

12. Issues with Sentences A run-on sentence is one in which 2 or more independent clauses (i.e. clauses that can stand alone) are connected incorrectly. E.g. Emilia is a strong-willed character she is also my favorite character in Othello. E.g. Some critics think Othello is a tragic hero, that assessment is false. The second example is a run-on sentence with a comma splice, which is an improper connection between independent clauses. Remember, an independent clause could be its own sentence, which means it has a subject (the main noun) & a predicate (a verb or verb phrase that tells what the subject is or does.)

13. Sentences, cont. A semicolon, a comma and a coordinating conjunction, or a period can properly separate 2 independent clauses. E.g. Some critics think Othello is a tragic hero; they are wrong. Some critics think Othello is a tragic hero, but they are wrong. Some critics think Othello is a tragic hero. They are wrong.

14. Subject-Verb Agreement E.g. Shakespeare’s plays encourage readers to think critically. E.g. Caliban resents Prospero’s attempts to civilize him. E.g. One of Othello’s flaws is his gullibility.

15. Correct Verb Tense E.g. Shakespeare acted in many productions of the plays he wrote. (This is a historical fact, so use past tense.) E.g. Shakespeare portrays Caliban as a half- human creature. (An argument about the text of a work of literature, so use present tense.) E.g. Bob Jones argues that Prospero is the play’s hero. (A critic’s position, so use present tense.)

16. Parallelism All words in a list should have the same (or “parallel”) form. NOT parallel: “Iago is the villain of Othello because he acts sadistically, cruelly, and deception. (2 adverbs, 1 noun) Parallel: “Iago is the villain of Othello because he acts sadistically, cruelly, and deceptively.” (Adverb form) Parallel: “Iago is the villain of Othello because he displays sadism, cruelty, and deception. (Noun form)

17. The Dreaded Dangling Participle a dangling participle or participial phrase, often found at the beginning of a sentence, appears from its position to modify an element of the sentence other than the one it was intended to modify. In the following example, the participial phrase is before the comma, and it looks like it’s modifying the only subject in sight: “we.” E.g. “Plunging 100 meters into the Zambezi gorge, we saw Victoria Falls.” Instead, try this: “We saw Victoria Falls plunging 100 meters into the Zambezi gorge.”

18. One Example: What is wrong with the sentence below? “Walking down the street, the trees were beautiful.” (Hopefully, the beautiful trees weren’t walking down the street!) Instead, try … “Walking down the street, I noticed that the trees were beautiful.”

19. Another Example: “Reunited with one another, the boat set sail once more for Milan.” (This doesn’t make sense! Who is being reunited with whom? Is the boat being reunited with someone, or is it just setting sail?) Instead, try… “Reunited with one another, the inhabitants of the island set sail once more for Milan.”

20. Editing Your Essay If you don’t revise (edit) your final essay, you will not make an “A”, regardless of how effectively you argue your points. A lack of revision indicates a lack of attention to the assignment, as well as a lack of concern for the reader. PLEASE EDIT YOUR FINAL ESSAY! If you doubt your ability to submit a grammatically perfect essay, please bring a draft to one of the writing centers to receive help.