1. 1 Psychology 320: Gender Psychology Lecture 9

2. 2 1.What theories and research characterize the history of gender psychology? (continued) History of Research on Gender Psychology

3. 3 What theories and research characterize the history of gender psychology? (continued) F. 1982 – Present: Gender as a Social Category Since 1982, research on sex, gender, and psychology has proliferated. Two trends are apparent in this research:

4. 4 1. Gender as a multidimensional construct.  Many contemporary theorists argue that gender is not adequately represented by a two-dimensional model (e.g., instrumental vs. expressive traits).  Rather, masculinity and femininity reflect highly diverse content, including traits, physical characteristics, and interests.  Consistent with this view, many contemporary theorists view masculinity and femininity as prototypes: as abstract sets of features commonly associated with masculinity and femininity.

5. 5  Helgeson (1994) identified the following features of gender prototypes: Feminine prototype Traits: Caring, soft-spoken, social, delicate, shy. Physical characteristics: Well dressed. Interests: Concerned with appearance, likes art. Masculine prototype Traits: Self-confident, dominant. Physical characteristics: Muscular, tall, hairy face. Interests: Likes sports, fitness, cars, concerned with work.

6. 6  Lippa et al. (1990, 1995) developed a multidimensional measure of masculinity and femininity referred to as gender diagnosticity (GD).  GD scores indicate levels of masculinity and femininity on the basis of the individual’s traits, behaviours, physical characteristics, and interests.

7. 7  GD scores are not highly correlated with scores on the BSRI or the PAQ.  GD scores that approach 0 or 1 suggest relatively high levels of femininity and masculinity, respectively.  GD scores are computed statistically, by combining an individual’s scores on several indices of masculinity and femininity (e.g., preferred occupation, hobbies, level of aggressiveness).

8. 8  Consistent with the social constructionist view, there is increasing emphasis on the social factors that contribute to sex differences in behaviour. 2. Social influences on gender.  Recognition of the social influences on gender has resulted in research on gender-role strain.

9. 9  The bulk of research on gender-role strain has focused on males. This research has identified several sources of gender-role strain among men: Physical inadequacy, emotional inexpressiveness, subordination to women, intellectual inferiority, and performance failure.  Measures of gender-role strain among males include the Gender-Role Conflict Scale (O’Neil et al., 1986) and the Masculine Gender Role Stress Scale (MGRSS; Eisler & Skidmore, 1987).

10. 10 Sample Items from the MGRSS (Eisler & Skidmore, 1987) Being perceived by someone as “gay.” Losing in a sports competition Having our lover say that she/he is not sexually satisfied. Telling someone that you feel hurt by what she/he said. Admitting that you are afraid of something. Having a man put his arm around your shoulder. Having a female boss. Being outperformed at work by a woman. Being married to someone who makes more money than you. Having people say that you are indecisive. Having people say that you are too emotional. Working with people who seem more ambitious than you. Being unable to perform sexually. Being unable to become sexually aroused when you want. Not making enough money.

11. 11  High gender-role strain scores among males are associated with relatively poor psychological and physical well-being. Correlations Among MGRSS Scores, Anger, State- Anxiety, and Trait Anxiety (Eilser & Skidmore, 1987) AngerState-AnxietyTrait-Anxiety MGRSS.54**.23*.22* *p<.05, **p<.01

12. 12 Straight Edge

13. 13  Although relatively little research has examined gender-role strain among females, a recent study (Gillespie & Eisler, 1992) identified several sources of gender-role strain among women: Fear of unemotional relationships, fear of physical unattractiveness, fear of victimization, fear of behaving assertively, fear of not being nurturant.  Measures of gender-role strain among females include and the Feminine Gender Role Stress Scale (FGRSS; Gillespie & Eisler, 1992).

14. 14 Sample Items from the FGRSS (Gillespie & Eisler, 1992) Having to deal with unwanted sexual advances. Being pressured for sex when seeking affection from your mate. Being considered promiscuous. Being perceived by others as overweight. Being heavier than your mate. Being unable to change your appearance to please someone. Hearing a strange noise while you are home alone. Feeling that you are being followed by someone. Having your car break down on the road. Making sure you are not taken advantage of when buying a house or car. Trying to be a good parent and excel at work. Supervising older and more experienced employees at work. Returning to work soon after your child is born. Having a weak or incompetent spouse. A very close friend stops speaking to you

15. 15 1.What theories and research characterize the history of gender psychology? (continued) History of Research on Gender Psychology