1. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Chapter 4: Preventing Injuries Through Fitness Training

2. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Fitness is critical for performance and injury prevention Improper conditioning is a major cause in sports related injuries Areas of concern: –Flexibility –Muscular strength, endurance, power –Cardiorespiratory endurance Coaches need to develop program that focuses on injury prevention and performance enhancement

3. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Periodization in Training and Conditioning Traditional seasons no longer exist for serious athletes Periodization –Achieve peak performance –Decrease injuries and overtraining –Program that spans various seasons –Modify program relative to athlete’s needs

4. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Year Round Training Cycle Complete training cycle Seasonal approach based on preseason, in-season, and off-season Changes in intensity, volume, specificity of training occur in order to achieve peak levels of fitness for competition Broken into periods or phases (lasting weeks or months)

5. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Periods or Phases Transition period: –Follows last competition (early off-season) –Unstructured (escape rigors of training) Preparatory period: –Off-season –Hypertropy/endurance phase (Low intensity with high volume) Allows for development of endurance base Lasts several weeks to 2 months –Strength Phase –Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)

6. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Preparatory period (continued) –Strength Phase Intensity and volume increase to moderate levels –Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season) Volume is decreased to allow adequate recovery Competition period: –May last a < week or several months for seasonal sports –High intensity, low volume, skill training sessions –May incorporate weekly training cycles (1-7 days) Designed to ensure peak on days of competition

7. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Cross Training Training for a sport with substitutions of alternative activities (carryover value) Useful in transition and preparatory periods Variety to training regimen Should be discontinued prior to preseason as it is not sport-specific

8. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Foundations of Conditioning and Training Warm-up/Cool-down Motivation Overload and SAID principle Consistency/routine Progression Intensity Specificity Individuality Relaxation/Minimize Stress Safety

9. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Warm-up Precaution against unnecessary musculoskeletal injury and soreness May enhance certain aspects of performance Prepares body physiologically for physical work Stimulates cardiorespiratory system, enhancing circulation and blood flow to muscles Increases metabolic processes, core temperature, and muscle elasticity

10. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. General –Activities which bring a general warming to the body(break a sweat) –Not related to sport Specific –Specific to sport –Stretching, jogging, running, throwing, catching Should last 10-15 minutes resulting in effects that will last 45 minutes

11. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Cool-down Essential component of workout Bring body back to resting state 5-10 minutes in duration Often ignored Decreased muscle soreness following training if time used to stretch after workout

12. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Why is it important to have good flexibility? Flexibility –Ability to move a joint(s) smoothly through a full range of motion (ROM) Originally believed that decreased ROM results in: –Decreased performance capabilities –Uncoordinated/awkward movements –Predisposes athlete to injury

13. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. New evidence indicates that it may be more important for participation in more dynamic activities –Activities that require jumping, bounding –High intensity stretch-shortening cycles (where muscle tendon unit requires storage of more elastic energy –Without necessary flexibility the tendon may exceed capacity –Stretching can influence viscosity of tendons making it more compliant = injury reduction No scientifically based evidence to support relationship between stretching and occurrence of injury

14. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Factors That Limit Flexibility Bony structures Tissue approximation Excessive fat Muscle and tendon lengths Connective tissue Scarring and contractures Skin

15. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

16. Range of Motion (ROM) Active range of motion = dynamic flexibility –Ability to move a joint with little resistance Passive range of motion = static flexibility –Motion of joint to end points without muscle contraction Must be able to move through unrestricted range Must have elasticity for additional stretch encountered during activity

17. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Agonist vs. Antagonist Muscles Joints are capable of multiple movements Example: –Quadriceps will extend knee with contraction –Hamstrings will stretch during extension –Quads (muscle producing movement) referred to as agonist –Muscle undergoing stretch referred to as antagonist –Agonist and antagonist work together to produce smooth coordinated movements

18. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Stretching Techniques Ballistic –Bouncing movement in which repetitive contractions of agonist work to stretch antagonist muscle –While effective in improving flexibility, caution should be exercised Increased motion is achieved through a series of jerks on resistant tissue –Possible soreness may result if jerks are greater than tissue extensibility

19. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Dynamic –Stretching technique of choice in athletic populations –Related to types of activity an athlete will engage in –Tend to be more functional in nature –Recommended prior to beginning an activity –Stretches that mimic components of athletic activity

20. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Static stretching –Passively stretching –20-30 second hold = optimal –Go to point of pain and back off and hold for 30 seconds (3 to 4 times) –Controlled, less chance of injury –Not dynamic –Should precede ballistic stretching

21. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation –Physical therapy for neuromuscular paralysis –Slow-reversal-hold-relax –Contract-relax –Hold-relax Ten second push, ten second relax –Best technique to improve flexibility –Technique that involves combination of alternating contractions and relaxation of both agonist and antagonists

22. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

23. Stretching Exercises Shoulder Towel Stretch Exercise

24. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. William’s Flexion Exercises Anterior Abdominal Stretch

25. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

27. Assessment of Flexibility Various devices have been designed to accommodate joint sizes and complexities of movement Goniometer most widely used device Can also utilize the following tests: –Trunk hip flexion test –Trunk extension test –Shoulder extension test

28. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Flexibility Assessments Trunk & Hip Flexion TestTrunk Extension Test Shoulder Lift Test

29. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Is there a relationship between strength and flexibility? Co-exist Muscle bound = zero flexibility Strength training will provide individual with ability to develop dynamic flexibility through full range of motion Develop more powerful and coordinated movements

30. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Muscular Strength, Endurance, and Power

31. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Muscle Strength, Power, and Endurance Strength: ability to generate force against resistance Muscular endurance: repetitive muscular contractions (increase strength = increase endurance Power: is the relationship between strength and time

32. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Types of Skeletal Muscle Contractions Isometric contraction –No length change occurs during contraction Isotonic contraction –Concentric- shortening of muscle with contraction in an effort to overcome more resistance – Eccentric - lengthening of muscle with contraction because load is greater than force being produced –Both are considered dynamic movements

33. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Factors that Determine Levels of Muscular Strength Size of muscle: –Function of diameter and of muscle fibers –Hypertrophy vs. Atrophy Number of muscle fibers Neuromuscular efficiency –Initial gains are due to increased efficiency More effectively engage specific motor units Biomechanical factors –Bones and muscles = Levers and pulleys

34. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Fast-Twitch vs. Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers –Motor units with distinct metabolic and contractile capability Individual make-up –Muscles contain both types of fibers –Muscle functioning impacts ratios (postural vs. powerful movement) –Genetically determined Slow twitch (Type I): –Generally major constituent of postural muscles Fast twitch (Type II) –High force in short amount of time –Produce powerful movements

35. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Levels of Physical Activity –Will influence increase/decrease in muscle strength –Also impacts cardiorespiratory fitness, flexibility and increases in body fat Overtraining –Psychological and physiological breakdown –Signs Apathy, loss of appetite, staleness, declines in performance, weight loss, inability to sleep –Prevent through appropriate training protocol, proper diet and rest

36. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. What physiological changes occur to cause increased strength? Multiple theories of muscle hypertrophy Primary explanation of muscle hypertrophy: –Increase in protein myofilament number and size Continued need for additional research

37. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Core Stabilization Training Core refers to the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex –29 muscles in the lumbar spine, hip, abdomen and around the hip and pelvis Will help to improve: –Postural control and muscular balance –Allow for expression of dynamic functional strength and dynamic stabilization of kinetic chain –Improve neuromuscular efficiency throughout the body

38. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Often a focus on functional strength, neuromuscular control and power relative to activity –Core training spinal stabilization is often neglected Optimal stabilization of the spine allows for effective utilization of strength, power and control of the prime movers –If core is weak, movement efficiency declines –Could lead to injury

39. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Core training is designed to help develop strength, neuromuscular control, power and endurance within the lumbo-pelvic complex –Exercises must elicit maximal training response –Should be safe, challenging, stress multiple planes, and incorporate a variety of resistance equipment –Begin with activities where you are able to maintain stability and optimal neuromuscular control

40. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

41. Techniques of Resistance Training Progressive resistance exercise Overload principle must be applied Must work muscle at increasingly higher intensities to enhance strength over time If intensity of training does not increase, but training continues, muscle strength will be sustained

42. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Contraction where muscle length remains unchanged Muscle contraction that lasts 10 seconds and should be performed 5-10 times/daily Pro: quick, effective, cheap, good for rehab Con: only works at one point in ROM, produces spiking of blood pressure due to Valsalva maneuver Isometric Exercise

43. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Progressive Resistance Exercises (Isotonic training) Shortening/lengthening contractions against fixed resistance Concentric vs. Eccentric Various types of equipment can be utilized –(Free weights, machine weight) Spotter is necessary for free weight training to prevent injury, motivate partner and instruct on technique

44. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Concentric and eccentric training should be incorporated for greatest strength improvement Concentric phase of lift should last 1-2 seconds, eccentric phase 2-4 seconds Variations exist between free and machine weight lifting –Motion restrictions, levels of muscular control required, amount of weight that can be lifted –Equipment design, varying resistances

45. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Terminology associated with weight training –Repetitions –Repetition maximum –One repetition maximum –Set – Intensity –Recovery period –Frequency Progressive Resistance Exercise Techniques

46. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. When training should be able to perform 3 sets of 6-8 repetitions Increases should occur in increments of 10% 1 RM can be utilized to measure maximum amount of weight that can be lifted - must be very careful Training of a particular muscle group should occur 3-4 times per week (not on successive days)

47. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Muscular Endurance vs. Strength Training for endurance enhances strength and vice versa Training for strength should involve lower repetitions at heavier weight Training for endurance requires lower weight at 12-15 repetitions

48. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Strengthening Exercises Bench Press Shoulder Rotation

49. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

50. Leg Exercises

51. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Open vs. Closed Kinetic Chain Exercises Anatomical functional relationship for upper and lower extremities OKC –When foot or hand are not in contact with the ground or supporting surface CKC –Foot or hand are weight bearing –Widely used = more functional

52. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Isokinetic Training Muscle contraction at a constant velocity Maximal and constant resistance throughout the full range of motion Maximal effort = Maximal strength gains Rehab Never widely used in strength training Losing popularity in rehabilitation settings

53. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

54. Circuit Training Combination of exercise stations 8 - 12 stations, 3 times through Design for different training goals –Flexibility –Calisthenics –Aerobic exercise

55. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Plyometric Exercise Rapid stretch, eccentric contraction followed by a rapid concentric contraction to create a forceful explosive movement Rate of stretch vs. magnitude Jumps, bounds, medicine ball throws Very technical training - skills must be learned with appropriate technique Often develop muscle soreness as a result of extensive eccentric loading

56. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Calisthenic Strengthening Exercises Free exercise Isotonic training Gravity’s involvement determines level of intensity Full range of motion, may incorporate holding phase Pull-ups, push-ups, back extensions, leg extensions

57. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

60. Functional Training Newer technique used to improve strength and neuromuscular control Involves tri-planar activities designed to challenge the whole body –Requires central nervous system to integrate proprioceptive information from multiple muscles to produce a specific movement pattern Involves concentric, eccentric and isometric muscle contractions

61. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Allows not only for development of strength and control but also high levels of core strength and flexibility

62. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Training for the Female Athlete Critical for female athlete Significant hypertrophy is related to testosterone present within body Remarkable gains are experienced initially due to enhanced nervous system and muscle interaction (efficiency-not muscle bulk) Following initial gains, plateau occurs, with females

63. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Males tend to continue to increase strength with training Critical difference is the ratio of strength to body fat –Females have reduced strength to body weight ratio due to higher percentage of body fat –Ratio can be enhanced through weight training Results in a decrease in body fat percentage or an increase in lean weight

64. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Cardiorespiratory Endurance Perform whole body activities for extended period of time Performance vs. fatigue vs. injury Aerobic exercise –Low intensity exercise that can be sustained for a long period of time Anaerobic exercise –Activity where intensity is so high that demand for oxygen is greater than body’s ability to deliver

65. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. System’s four components –Heart –Lungs –Blood vessels –Blood Improvements in endurance are the results of improvements in these 4 components

66. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Impact on Heart Main pumping mechanism Increase exercise = increased oxygen requirement=increase heart pumping Heart able to adapt through increases in heart rate and stroke volume which will enhance overall cardiac output Oxygenation of blood

67. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. What determines how efficiently the body is using oxygen? Aerobic capacity = VO 2 max More active = higher capacity Average value = 45-60 ml O 2 /min/kg Increases in intensity require higher levels of oxygen consumption Inherit certain range of maximum aerobic capacity (genetics) –Dependent on activity levels –Also impacted by muscle fiber types

68. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Maximum Aerobic Capacity Most accurate techniques must be performed in a laboratory setting –Treadmill, bicycle ergometer –Monitor heart rate and gas exchange at particular workload Generally utilize heart rate to estimate percentage of maximum aerobic capacity –Indirect method –Heart rate and aerobic capacity have linear relationship

69. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Types of Training for Cardiorespiratory Endurance Continuous –Mode (type of exercise) - must be aerobic in nature –Frequency (at least 3 times/week) –Duration(at least 20 minutes) –Intensity (monitor intensity as % of heart rate or perceived exertion) Training heart rate – target heart rate Maximum HR = 220 - Age Karvonen formula –Target HR=Resting HR+(.6 [Max HR – Resting HR])

70. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Interval training –Intermittent activities involving periods of intense work and active recovery –Must occur at 60-80% of maximal heart rate –Allows for higher intensity training at short intervals over an extended period of time –Most anaerobic sports require short burst which can be mimicked through interval training

71. © 2010 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Fartlek training –Cross-country running that originated in Sweden –Speed play –Similar to interval training in the fact activity occurs over a specific period of time but pace and speed are not specified –Consists of varied terrain which incorporates varying degrees of hills –Dynamic form of training –Must elevate heart rate to minimal levels to be effective –Popular form of training in off-season