1. Close Reading Analysis

2. Analysis Think about how the writer is expressing his ideas. Think about how the writer is expressing his ideas. Analysis is not understanding, so don’t explain what is being said but rather how it is said. Analysis is not understanding, so don’t explain what is being said but rather how it is said.

3. Analysis questions deal with… Style: Sentence structure Sentence structure Punctuation Punctuation Expression Expression Word choice Word choice Figures of speech Figures of speech The structure of the argument The structure of the argument Tone Tone

4. Sentence Structure The ‘structure of a sentence’ means the way in which it is made up and how various elements are arranged. The ‘structure of a sentence’ means the way in which it is made up and how various elements are arranged. The punctuation can be helpful in giving clues to the structure. The punctuation can be helpful in giving clues to the structure. Describe the main features of sentence structure AND explain their effect. Describe the main features of sentence structure AND explain their effect.

5. Step One Look out for the types of sentence the writer uses. Look out for the types of sentence the writer uses. Here are the main types and the effect each type is likely to have….. Here are the main types and the effect each type is likely to have…..

6. Statements Tells you something. Tells you something. Ends in a full stop. Ends in a full stop. Writing which is made up of statements alone may have a calm or impersonal tone. Writing which is made up of statements alone may have a calm or impersonal tone. Most sentences are statements. Most sentences are statements.

7. Questions Asks something, always ending with a question mark. Asks something, always ending with a question mark. Can challenge the reader or show uncertainty in the writer. Can challenge the reader or show uncertainty in the writer. Rhetorical questions do not expect an answer, e.g. ‘What kind of question is that?’ Rhetorical questions do not expect an answer, e.g. ‘What kind of question is that?’ Such questions aim to stir up strong feelings in the reader. Such questions aim to stir up strong feelings in the reader. They create an emotive tone. They create an emotive tone.

8. Commands Tell you to do something. Tell you to do something. They end with either a full stop or an exclamation mark. They end with either a full stop or an exclamation mark. They are often used when the writer tries to create the effect of talking directly to the reader. They are often used when the writer tries to create the effect of talking directly to the reader.

9. Exclamations Express excitement or surprise. Express excitement or surprise. Do not always contain verbs. Do not always contain verbs. Often begin with ‘what’ or ‘how’, e.g. ‘How beautiful it was!’ or ‘What a place!’. Often begin with ‘what’ or ‘how’, e.g. ‘How beautiful it was!’ or ‘What a place!’. End in either a full stop or exclamation mark. End in either a full stop or exclamation mark. May also create an emotive or dramatic tone. May also create an emotive or dramatic tone.

10. Minor Sentences Don’t contain a verb. Don’t contain a verb. Short and may create a tense or dramatic mood. Short and may create a tense or dramatic mood. Typical of informal language. Typical of informal language. May be used in direct speech, notes or diary entries. May be used in direct speech, notes or diary entries. E.g. ‘Time for a rest’, ‘What now?’ E.g. ‘Time for a rest’, ‘What now?’

11. Practice – what type of sentences are these? What time does the match start? What time does the match start? Give me the money. Give me the money. What an ordeal my interview turned out to be! What an ordeal my interview turned out to be! What do people care nowadays? What do people care nowadays? The dance will begin at nine o’clock. The dance will begin at nine o’clock. Eleven thirty. Still no sign of anyone! Eleven thirty. Still no sign of anyone! Come in! Come in! Why is she so upset? Why is she so upset? Quite right! Quite right! He came here many years ago. He came here many years ago.

12. You will never be asked to simply identify types of sentences, you must explain the effect of choosing particular types. You will never be asked to simply identify types of sentences, you must explain the effect of choosing particular types. This is only possible when you know the full context. This is only possible when you know the full context.

13. Complex Long sentences containing several verbs and clauses are called complex. Long sentences containing several verbs and clauses are called complex. Usually, the more complex the sentence, the more formal the language. Usually, the more complex the sentence, the more formal the language.

14. Simple Sentences with only one verb are called simple. Sentences with only one verb are called simple. These are typical of speech and types of language which aim to communicate very quickly and directly. These are typical of speech and types of language which aim to communicate very quickly and directly.

15. Arrangement of words - Sentence Structure It is important to look at how the words are arranged within sentences. It is important to look at how the words are arranged within sentences. Consider: Consider: - Word order - Patterns - Parts of speech - Parenthesis - First or third person - Punctuation

16. Word Order The best advice is that anything unusual probable deserves a comment! The best advice is that anything unusual probable deserves a comment! A reversal of the normal word order is known as inversion. There are examples of this in ‘The Crucible’. Other famous examples of inversion come from a little, wise green man. A reversal of the normal word order is known as inversion. There are examples of this in ‘The Crucible’. Other famous examples of inversion come from a little, wise green man. Using inversion emphasises a particular part of the sentence. Using inversion emphasises a particular part of the sentence. E.g. ‘Back we went’ instead of ‘We went back’. The emphasis is placed on BACK. E.g. ‘Back we went’ instead of ‘We went back’. The emphasis is placed on BACK.

17. Patterns Often a pattern will be clear to see in a sentence. Often a pattern will be clear to see in a sentence. There are three common patterns: lists, repetition, climax. There are three common patterns: lists, repetition, climax. ‘I came, I saw, I conquered’ is an example of all 3. ‘I came, I saw, I conquered’ is an example of all 3. - The list of verbs creates a sense of action. - The repetition of ‘I’ suggests an egotistical and dominating speaker. - The verbs have a sense of progress and end with the most powerful, leading to the effect of a climax.

18. Parts of speech The words which make up a sentence are called parts of speech. There are 8 in English and they all have different functions. The words which make up a sentence are called parts of speech. There are 8 in English and they all have different functions. - Nouns - Verbs - Adjectives- Adverbs - Pronouns- Prepositions - Conjunctions- Articles

19. The meaning of these words Noun: a word used to name or identify a person, place or thing. Noun: a word used to name or identify a person, place or thing. Verb: a word used to indicate an action. There has to be a verb in every sentence for it to make sense. Verb: a word used to indicate an action. There has to be a verb in every sentence for it to make sense. Adjective: A describing word. Adjective: A describing word. Adverb: Mostly formed by adding ‘ly’ to an adjective. Adverbs can modify the meaning of other words. Adverb: Mostly formed by adding ‘ly’ to an adjective. Adverbs can modify the meaning of other words.

20. Pronouns: Substitutes a noun, e.g. I, myself, he, her. Pronouns: Substitutes a noun, e.g. I, myself, he, her. Prepositions: Links a noun or pronoun to other words, often referring to time, location, possession and direction. E.g. he’s going to the shops, it’s in the box. Prepositions: Links a noun or pronoun to other words, often referring to time, location, possession and direction. E.g. he’s going to the shops, it’s in the box. Conjunctions: A word which connects words, phrases or clauses e.g. and, but, when. Conjunctions: A word which connects words, phrases or clauses e.g. and, but, when.

21. Articles: A, an and the are articles. Articles: A, an and the are articles. THE is the definite article. THE is the definite article. A/AN is the indefinite article. A/AN is the indefinite article. ‘The boy’ refers to a definite, particular boy. ‘A boy’ refers to no particular boy.

22. Clauses A clause is a part of a sentence that usually contains a subject and a verb. It is usually connected to the other part of the sentence by a conjunction. It is not a complete sentence on its own. A clause is a part of a sentence that usually contains a subject and a verb. It is usually connected to the other part of the sentence by a conjunction. It is not a complete sentence on its own. The subject of a sentence is the noun/pronoun which is in front of and controls the main verb of the sentence. E.g. My dog attacked the man. What is the subject? The subject of a sentence is the noun/pronoun which is in front of and controls the main verb of the sentence. E.g. My dog attacked the man. What is the subject?

23. Conjunctions have a linking function. Conjunctions have a linking function. Recognising the tense of verbs can be useful. In most narrative writing the past tense is used. If the present tense is used, or if the tense changes at some point, this may well be worth commenting on. Recognising the tense of verbs can be useful. In most narrative writing the past tense is used. If the present tense is used, or if the tense changes at some point, this may well be worth commenting on. Be precise in describing the effects. You will get little credit for vague comments such as, ‘The writer uses lots of adjectives.’ Be precise in describing the effects. You will get little credit for vague comments such as, ‘The writer uses lots of adjectives.’

24. For practice Complete the task on page 20, individually. Complete the task on page 20, individually.

25. Parenthesis/Parentheses (pl) A parenthesis is an extra piece of information inserted into a sentence and enclosed by a pair of commas, brackets or dashes. A parenthesis is an extra piece of information inserted into a sentence and enclosed by a pair of commas, brackets or dashes. A parenthesis may be a single word, a phrase or a whole clause. A parenthesis may be a single word, a phrase or a whole clause. A parenthesis may add significant detail or make something more clear. A parenthesis may add significant detail or make something more clear. A parenthesis may affect the tone by adding a comment, which might be humorous or ironic. A parenthesis may affect the tone by adding a comment, which might be humorous or ironic. If a parenthesis were removed from the sentence, it would still make sense. If a parenthesis were removed from the sentence, it would still make sense.

26. For practice Complete the task on page 21, individually. Complete the task on page 21, individually.

27. 1 st /3 rd person First person – uses pronouns such as I, me and we. First person – uses pronouns such as I, me and we. Third person – uses pronouns such as he, she, they. Third person – uses pronouns such as he, she, they. Although this may not be considered ‘structure’, you may be given credit for commenting on the choice of ‘person’ a writer makes. Although this may not be considered ‘structure’, you may be given credit for commenting on the choice of ‘person’ a writer makes.

28. Punctuation Punctuation is very useful in making clear the sentence structure. Punctuation is very useful in making clear the sentence structure. So, it is worth learning the functions of different punctuation marks to enable you to comment on them. So, it is worth learning the functions of different punctuation marks to enable you to comment on them.

29. Punctuation Commas (,): separate clauses and phrases within a sentence. A number of commas may indicate a list. Commas (,): separate clauses and phrases within a sentence. A number of commas may indicate a list. Colon (:): Introduces a quotation or a list; an explanation or elaboration; or a summing up. Colon (:): Introduces a quotation or a list; an explanation or elaboration; or a summing up. Semi-colon (;): finishes off one part of a sentence. It may be used instead of a conjunction to separate two principal clauses in a sentence. Semi-colon (;): finishes off one part of a sentence. It may be used instead of a conjunction to separate two principal clauses in a sentence.

30. Inverted commas (‘ ’ or “ ”): mark quotations, direct speech, foreign words or words used in an unusual way. (Italics may be used similarly) Inverted commas (‘ ’ or “ ”): mark quotations, direct speech, foreign words or words used in an unusual way. (Italics may be used similarly) Dash (--): can function like a colon. Two dashes can mark off a parenthesis. Dash (--): can function like a colon. Two dashes can mark off a parenthesis. Hyphen (-): joins two words to make a compound word, or indicates a split word at the end of a line. Hyphen (-): joins two words to make a compound word, or indicates a split word at the end of a line.

31. For Practice Complete the task starting on page 22, individually. Complete the task starting on page 22, individually.

32. Expression and Word Choice Questions relating to expression and WC look at the effect created by the particular choices of the writer. Questions relating to expression and WC look at the effect created by the particular choices of the writer. The writer’s tone will depend on these choices. The writer’s tone will depend on these choices. The particular style a writer chooses is known as the register. This includes grammar, word choice and all aspects of style. The particular style a writer chooses is known as the register. This includes grammar, word choice and all aspects of style.

33. Colloquial Language When a writer chooses to write informally using a style more typical of speaking than writing. When a writer chooses to write informally using a style more typical of speaking than writing. E.g. ‘by the way’, ‘you know’ E.g. ‘by the way’, ‘you know’ Also slang words, e.g. ‘guy’ for man and ‘kid’ for child. Also slang words, e.g. ‘guy’ for man and ‘kid’ for child. Look at page 27 for an example. Look at page 27 for an example.

34. Dialect The style of language spoken in a particular area, e.g. Scots is spoken in Scotland. The style of language spoken in a particular area, e.g. Scots is spoken in Scotland. You may be asked to compare dialect with Standard English (the term you should use for the style of English that is understood everywhere). You may be asked to compare dialect with Standard English (the term you should use for the style of English that is understood everywhere). Dialect forms may be SE words pronounced differently, e.g. auld=old, or completely different words, e.g. ‘bairn’for child. Dialect forms may be SE words pronounced differently, e.g. auld=old, or completely different words, e.g. ‘bairn’for child. Dialects may be used by the writer as they feel it is more natural, expressive and lively. Dialects may be used by the writer as they feel it is more natural, expressive and lively.

35. Word choice to create atmosphere A writer will try to create a particular effect by using many words which have the same sort of meaning. A writer will try to create a particular effect by using many words which have the same sort of meaning. E.g. Travel brochures specialise in trying to make their resorts sound appealing. E.g. Travel brochures specialise in trying to make their resorts sound appealing. Look at page 35 for an example. Look at page 35 for an example.

36. Emotive Language Emotive language: words which stir up strong emotions. Emotive language: words which stir up strong emotions. Used if a writer is talking about something tragic. Used if a writer is talking about something tragic. E.g. ‘shocking’, ‘horrifying’ and ‘appalling’ express stronger feelings than ‘worrying’ or ‘upsetting’. E.g. ‘shocking’, ‘horrifying’ and ‘appalling’ express stronger feelings than ‘worrying’ or ‘upsetting’. Emotive language plays on the emotions of his readers. Emotive language plays on the emotions of his readers. Look at page 39 for an example. Look at page 39 for an example.

37. Jargon Technical, formal language. Technical, formal language. Specific to a profession or occupation. Specific to a profession or occupation. Used if someone perhaps wants to appear impressively knowledgeable. Used if someone perhaps wants to appear impressively knowledgeable. See page 40 for an example. See page 40 for an example.

38. Archaisms Old fashioned words used to create a setting in a past age. Old fashioned words used to create a setting in a past age. E.g. ‘good morrow’ for ‘good morning’ or ‘farewell’ instead of ‘goodbye’. E.g. ‘good morrow’ for ‘good morning’ or ‘farewell’ instead of ‘goodbye’. See page 40 for an example. See page 40 for an example.

39. Figures of Speech An elaborate way of saying something. An elaborate way of saying something. You will never be asked to simply identify a figure of speech, you will always be asked to explain the effect it has! You will never be asked to simply identify a figure of speech, you will always be asked to explain the effect it has!

40. Literal / Figurative Language Literal: the actual meaning. Literal: the actual meaning. Figurative: something suggested by the figure of speech. Figurative: something suggested by the figure of speech. ‘The audience were glued to their seats.’ LITERAL or FIGURATIVE? ‘The audience were glued to their seats.’ LITERAL or FIGURATIVE?

41. Simile: a comparison using the words ‘like’ or ‘as’. Simile: a comparison using the words ‘like’ or ‘as’. Metaphor: a comparison which does not use the words ‘like’ or ‘as’. Metaphor: a comparison which does not use the words ‘like’ or ‘as’. Personification: employing human like qualities into an inanimate object. Personification: employing human like qualities into an inanimate object. Image: the term used to describe the thing that the subject is being compared to. Image: the term used to describe the thing that the subject is being compared to. See page 43 for examples. See page 43 for examples.

42. Alliteration: repetition of consonant sounds, often used to increase the impact of a phrase. Focus on the actual sound being created and the effect the writer is trying to achieve. Alliteration: repetition of consonant sounds, often used to increase the impact of a phrase. Focus on the actual sound being created and the effect the writer is trying to achieve. Assonance: the term for a similar repetition of vowel sounds. Assonance: the term for a similar repetition of vowel sounds.

43. Onomatopoeia: words which imitate the sounds they make, e.g. ‘bang’ or ‘hiss’. Onomatopoeia: words which imitate the sounds they make, e.g. ‘bang’ or ‘hiss’. Hyperbole: deliberate and elaborate exaggeration, often used for comic effect or emphasis. Hyperbole: deliberate and elaborate exaggeration, often used for comic effect or emphasis. Understatement: The opposite of hyperbole, achieving its effect in an ironic way. This may be humorous or contribute to suspense. Understatement: The opposite of hyperbole, achieving its effect in an ironic way. This may be humorous or contribute to suspense.

44. Euphemism: a way of expressing something in a gentler way than the harsh truth, e.g. ‘my old dog was put to sleep’ is a soft way of saying he was killed! Euphemism: a way of expressing something in a gentler way than the harsh truth, e.g. ‘my old dog was put to sleep’ is a soft way of saying he was killed!

45. Structure of a Text The word ‘structure’ suggests a building, so the ‘structure of a text’ is all about how it is built. The word ‘structure’ suggests a building, so the ‘structure of a text’ is all about how it is built. The structure of a text consists of an introduction, a main text and a conclusion. The structure of a text consists of an introduction, a main text and a conclusion. The various parts of a text will be linked by words, phrases and sentences. The various parts of a text will be linked by words, phrases and sentences.

46. Introductions Purpose: to give the reader a general idea of the topic which is to be explored. Purpose: to give the reader a general idea of the topic which is to be explored. Sometimes the topic can be introduced in a straight forward manner. Sometimes the topic can be introduced in a straight forward manner. Writers may also begin the text with an anecdote (short story) which illustrates the topic or with a piece of conversation. Writers may also begin the text with an anecdote (short story) which illustrates the topic or with a piece of conversation. A question or series of questions may be posed to start the reader thinking. A question or series of questions may be posed to start the reader thinking.

47. Linkage Various ‘markers’ will link the stages of the argument. Various ‘markers’ will link the stages of the argument. E.g. conjunctions or phrases such as ‘but’, ‘yet’ or ‘on the other hand’. These mark a change in the argument’s direction. E.g. conjunctions or phrases such as ‘but’, ‘yet’ or ‘on the other hand’. These mark a change in the argument’s direction. Expressions such as ‘furthermore’, ‘moreover’, ‘in addition’ and ‘a further advantage’ imply that the argument is being strengthened and supported by further information. Expressions such as ‘furthermore’, ‘moreover’, ‘in addition’ and ‘a further advantage’ imply that the argument is being strengthened and supported by further information. Sometimes a whole sentence will be used to mark a turning point. Sometimes a whole sentence will be used to mark a turning point. See page 49/50 for an example. See page 49/50 for an example.

48. Tone The tone of a piece of writing reflects the attitudes of the writer to his subject. The tone of a piece of writing reflects the attitudes of the writer to his subject. To decide on the tone, it can be helpful to try to decide what the writer’s purpose is. To decide on the tone, it can be helpful to try to decide what the writer’s purpose is. Is he trying to be funny, serious, stir up some emotion, persuade the reader etc? Is he trying to be funny, serious, stir up some emotion, persuade the reader etc?

49. Examples of Tone Humorous/Light-hearted: may be expressed by making jokes, using techniques such as hyperbole etc. Its purpose is to amuse the reader. The writer may make fun of himself as well as his subject. Humorous/Light-hearted: may be expressed by making jokes, using techniques such as hyperbole etc. Its purpose is to amuse the reader. The writer may make fun of himself as well as his subject. Ironic/Tongue-in-cheek: used to criticise or mock something in a humorous way. Often done by saying the opposite of what is really meant. Ironic/Tongue-in-cheek: used to criticise or mock something in a humorous way. Often done by saying the opposite of what is really meant.

50. Emotive: aims to stir up emotions, e.g. anger, pity or sympathy. Strong, emotional words are used to express extremes of feelings. Emotive: aims to stir up emotions, e.g. anger, pity or sympathy. Strong, emotional words are used to express extremes of feelings. Colloquial/Chatty: the writer uses slang, abbreviations and short sentences as if he is chatting to the reader. Often personal comments will be included. Colloquial/Chatty: the writer uses slang, abbreviations and short sentences as if he is chatting to the reader. Often personal comments will be included.

51. Persuasive/ Argumentative: very positive expressions are typical of advertisements persuading you to buy. Emotive language may be used. Rhetorical questions and the use of the 1 st person are common techniques employed when an opinion is being put forward. Persuasive/ Argumentative: very positive expressions are typical of advertisements persuading you to buy. Emotive language may be used. Rhetorical questions and the use of the 1 st person are common techniques employed when an opinion is being put forward.

52. Now move on to the Evaluation Power Point! Now move on to the Evaluation Power Point!