1. Chapter 7 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2. Physical Development in Early Childhood  Skeletal growth:  new epiphyses emerge  lose baby teeth  Brain development:  rapid growth of the prefrontal cortex  hemispheres continue to lateralize Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

3. Handedness  Reflects dominant cerebral hemisphere:  right-handed (90%)— left hemisphere  left-handed (10%)— both hemispheres  Jointly influenced by nature and nurture:  position in uterus  practice © Elena Stepanova/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

4. Brain Development in Early Childhood  Left hemisphere especially active:  language skills  handedness  Links among parts of the brain increase:  cerebellum  reticular formation  hippocampus  corpus callosum Figure 7.2 Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

5. Influences on Physical Growth and Health  Heredity and hormones:  growth hormone  thyroid-stimulating hormone  Nutrition  Infectious disease:  malnutrition  immunization  Childhood injuries © CandyBox Images/Fotolia Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

6. Nutrition in Early Childhood  Appetite declines  Wariness of new foods is adaptive  Needs a high-quality diet that limits fats, oils, salt, and sugar  Imitates others’ food choices  Poor-quality diet is associated with cognitive deficits and behavior problems Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

7. Infectious Disease and Malnutrition  Poor diet depresses immune system  Illness reduces appetite  Diarrhea a danger in developing countries; can be helped by  oral rehydration therapy  zinc supplements © Creativa/Fotolia Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

8. Immunizations  Many U.S. children lack immunizations  Reasons include  cost  parents’ stressful daily lives  misconceptions about vaccine safety © Jaimie Duplass/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

9. Factors Related to Childhood Injuries  Gender and temperament  Poverty, single parenthood, low parental education  Societal conditions:  international differences  teenage parents  shortage of high-quality child care Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

10. International Death Rates Due to Injury Figure 7.3 (Adapted from World Health Organization, 2008.) Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

11. Motor Development in Early Childhood  Gross-motor skills:  balance improves  gait smooth and rhythmic by age 2  upper- and lower-body skills combine into more refined actions by age 5  greater speed and endurance  Fine-motor skills:  self-help: dressing, eating  drawing and printing Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

12. Progression of Drawing Skills  Scribbles  First representational forms:  Draws first recognizable pictures: 3 years  draws boundaries and tadpole people: 3–4 years  More complex drawings: 5–6 years  Early printing: 4–6 years Figure 7.4 (Left: Reprinted by permission from Artful Scribbles by Howard Gardner. Available from Basic Books, an imprint of The Perseus Books Group. Copyright © 1982. Right: From E. Winner, “Where Pelicans Kiss Seals,” Psychology Today, 20[8], August 1986, p. 35. Reprinted by permission from the collection of Ellen Winner.) Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

13. Individual Differences in Motor Skills  Gender  Boys excel in skills using force and power.  Girls excel in skills using balance and agility.  Practice  Adult encouragement © locrifa/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

14. Piaget’s Preoperational Stage  Ages 2 to 7  Gains in mental representation:  make-believe play  symbol–real-world relations  Limitations in thinking:  egocentrism  lack of conservation  lack of hierarchical classification Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

15. Early Childhood Development of Make-Believe  With age, make-believe gradually  detaches from real-life conditions  becomes less self-centered  becomes more complex  Sociodramatic play develops © Lisa Eastman/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

16. Benefits of Make-Believe Play  Contributes to cognitive and social skills  Strengthens mental abilities:  sustained attention  memory  language and literacy  creativity  regulation of emotion  perspective taking © Mat Hayward/Fotolia Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

17. Dual Representation  Viewing a symbolic object as both an object and a symbol  Strengthens around age 3  Adult teaching can help:  experiences with maps, photos, drawings, and make-believe play  pointing out similarities of symbols to real world Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

18. Egocentrism Failure to distinguish others’ viewpoints from one’s own Figure 7.5 Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

19. Animistic Thinking Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities © Rob Marmion/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

20. Conservation Understanding that physical characteristics remain the same when appearance changes:  Centration: focus on one aspect to neglect of others  Irreversibility: inability to mentally reverse a series of steps Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

21. Piagetian Conservation Tasks Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 7.6

22. Piaget’s Class Inclusion Problem Figure 7.7 Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

23. Follow-Up Research on Preoperational Thought Egocentrism  Able to take others’ perspectives  Animistic thinking results from incomplete knowledge of objects Logical thought  Conservation evident on simplified tasks  Reasons by analogy about physical changes Categorization  Hierarchical classification evident in everyday knowledge Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

24. Evaluation of Piaget  Development of logical operations is gradual  Disagreement over whether a preoperational stage really exists  Some experts deny the stage approach  Others support a flexible stage notion—a related set of competencies develops over an extended period Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

25. Educational Principles Derived from Piaget’s Theory  Discovery learning  Sensitivity to children’s readiness to learn  Acceptance of individual differences © Pressmaster/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

26. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory  Private speech  Zone of proximal development  Scaffolding: support of an “expert” © Blend Images/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

27. Children’s Private Speech  For Piaget, “egocentric speech”  For Vygotsky, the foundation for all higher cognitive processes  Serves a self-guiding function; increases during challenging tasks  Gradually internalized as silent, inner speech Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

28. Zone of Proximal Development Scaffolding:  Adults aid learning by adjusting support to child’s level of performance  Effectiveness varies culturally © Irina Schmidt/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

29. Vygotsky and Education  Assisted discovery: teacher  guides learning  tailors assistance to each child’s zone of proximal development  Peer collaboration  Make-believe play © Olesya Feketa/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

30. Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory  Helps us understand cultural variation in cognition  Focuses on language, deemphasizes other routes to cognitive development  Says little about how basic elementary capacities (motor, perceptual, attention, memory, and problem-solving skills) contribute to higher cognitive processes Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

31. Gains in Information Processing  Attention: inhibition, planning  Memory: recognition, recall, episodic memory  Theory of mind: false belief  Emergent literacy  Mathematical reasoning © David Huntley Creative/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

32. Inhibition of Impulses Figure 7.8 (From A. Diamond, 2004, “Normal Development of Prefrontal Cortex from Birth to Young Adulthood: Cognitive Functions, Anatomy, and Biochemistry,” as appeared in D. T. Stuss & R. T. Knight, [Eds.], Principles of Frontal Lobe Function, New York: Oxford University Press, p. 474. Reprinted by permission of Adele Diamond.) Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

33. Recognition and Recall Recognition  Noticing that a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced Recall  Generating a mental representation of an absent stimulus  More difficult than recognition Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

34. Episodic Memory  Scripts: memory for familiar everyday events  Autobiographical memory: memory for one-time events © auremar/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

35. Autobiographical Memory  Improves with cognitive and conversational skills  Influence of adult interaction:  elaborative style: fosters organized and detailed personal stories  repetitive style: weak at promoting autobiographical recall Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

36. The Young Child’s Theory of Mind  Early awareness of mental life: infancy through age 3  Mastery of false belief tasks: around age 4  Factors contributing to mastery of false belief:  language  executive function  social experiences Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

37. Fostering Emergent Literacy  Language skills:  phonological awareness  vocabulary and grammar  Informal literacy experiences:  games  interactive reading  writing  Teacher training, books for low-SES families © Ami Parikh/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

38. A Story and a Grocery List Written by a 4-Year-Old Figure 7.10 (From McGee, Lea M.; Richgels, Donald J., Literacy's Beginnings: Supporting Young Readers and Writers, 4th Ed., © 2004, p. 76. Reprinted and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.) Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

39. Early Childhood Mathematical Reasoning  Ordinality:  order relationships between quantities  14–16 months  Cardinality:  when counting, last number is the total  3½–4 years © Michael Jay Berlin/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

40. Individual Differences in Early Childhood Mental Development  Factors contributing to individual differences:  home environment  quality of child care, preschool, or kindergarten  child-centered vs. academic  early intervention programs  educational media © auremar/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

41. Features of a High-Quality Home Environment  Stimulation:  toys, games, reading  language  academic  Physical organization  Emotional support  Modeling and encouragement  Variety in stimulation  No physical punishment © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

42. Types of Preschool Child-Centered  Children select from wide variety of activities  Learn through play Academic  Teachers structure learning  Formal lessons:  letter, numbers, colors, shapes  repetition and drill Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

43. Outcomes of High/Scope Perry Preschool Project Figure 7.12 (Adapted from Schweinhart, 2010; Schweinhart et al., 2005.) Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

44. Signs of Developmentally Appropriate Practice  Physical setting  Group size  Caregiver – child ratio  Daily activities  Adult – child interactions  Teacher qualifications  Relationships with parents  Licensing and accreditation Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

45. Educational Media  Television is most common form  Slow-paced, narrative programs are most effective:  gains in early literacy, math skills  more elaborate make-believe play  higher academic achievement  Excessive entertainment TV can be harmful Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

46. Learning with Computers  Can support writing skills  Improves problem solving and metacognition  Excessive use for entertainment can be harmful © InesBazdar/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

47. Language Development in Early Childhood  Vocabulary: fast-mapping  Grammar: overregularization  Conversation: pragmatics  Supporting language development:  recasts  expansions Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

48. Vocabulary Development  Fast-mapping:  object names  verbs  modifiers  Coins new words  Uses metaphors © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

49. Strategies for Word Learning  Mutual exclusivity bias  Shape bias  Cues in sentence structure  Rich social information  Adult explanations © Levranii/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

50. Grammatical Development  Basic rules:  subject–verb–object structure between ages 2 and 3  small additions to sentences to express meaning: “-s,” variations of “to be”  Overregularization  Complex structures: question-asking, passive voice, embedded sentences, indirect objects Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

51. Pragmatics  2-year-olds can engage in effective conversation  By age 4, adjusts speech to fit listener’s age, sex, social status  Challenging situations, such as telephone conversations © Roger costa morera/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

52. Supporting Early Childhood Language  Conversation with adults  Recasts: restructuring inaccurate speech to correct form  Expansions: elaborating on children’s speech © Jenkedco/Shutterstock Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

53. Readers may view, browse, and/or download material for temporary copying purposes only, provided these uses are for noncommercial personal purposes. Except as provided by law, this material may not be further reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, adapted, performed, displayed, published, or sold in whole or in part, without prior written permission from the publisher. Development Through the Lifespan Sixth Edition ● Laura E. Berk Copyright © 2014, 2010, 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.