1. Tyler R.J. Hamilton1,, Cynthia J. Thomson1, Jamie F. Burr2
Improved aerobic fitness predicts improvements in self esteem and life skills following a full-year adventure-based learning program.
Tyler R.J. Hamilton1,, Cynthia J. Thomson1, Jamie F. Burr2
1University of the Fraser Valley, Chilliwack BC, Canada, 2University of PEI, Charlottetown PE, Canada
Methods
Abstract
Participants
At-risk youth enrolled in a high school ABL program were classified as:
Non-Responders; N=10 (predicted VO2max change ˂ 5 ml˙kg-1˙min-1).
Responders; N=12 (predicted VO2max change > 5 ml˙kg-1˙min-1).
Relative VO2max cut-off of 5 ml˙kg-1˙min-1 is indicative of a significant change in fitness given this is greater than one metabolic equivalent (1 MET, 3.5 ml˙kg-1˙min-1) and represented approximately a 10% increase in most individuals.
Participant data shown in Table 1.
These two groups did not differ in age, weight, height, BMI, nor did they differ in any psychological or baseline fitness measures (p > .05).
BACKGROUND: Adventure based learning (ABL) programs involve experiential learning combined with outdoor recreation, including hiking, biking, and kayaking. Participation in ABL programs have been associated with improvements in fitness and outcomes related to psychological wellbeing, though few studies have investigated the relationship between physiological and psychological outcomes.
PURPOSE: To determine whether improvements in aerobic fitness are associated with improvements in psychological outcomes.
METHODS: Youth enrolled in a school-based program (20 male, 2 female, age = 16.5 (0.8) yrs) completed questionnaires and fitness testing at the beginning and end of the school year. Based on whether or not there were changes in aerobic fitness (change in predicted VO2 max > 5 ml˙kg-1˙min-1), we grouped participants as responders (n = 12) and non-responders (n = 10) and compared results between time points using paired t-tests.
RESULTS: Fitness responders reported improvements on measures of self-esteem (p = .008) and life effectiveness (p = .005; subscales: social competence p = .02, leadership p = .003), whereas there were no significant changes among the non-responders (all p > .05). In the full sample (n = 22), changes in aerobic fitness were correlated with changes in general self-efficacy (r = .44), self-esteem (r = .56), psychological distress (r = -.52), life effectiveness (r = .61), but not with general wellbeing (r = .17).
CONCLUSION: Improved fitness may mediate changes in psychological outcomes.
Table 1. Participant Demographics
Characteristics Non-Responders (N=10)
Responders (N=12)
Sex
8 Male; 2 Female
12 Male
Age (years)
M = 16.2 (SD = 0.6)
M = 16.8 (SD = 0.8)
Grade
4 Grade 10’s; 5 Grade 11’s;
1 Grade 12
3 Grade 11’s; 9 Grade 12’s
Baseline Weight (kg)
M = 66.7 (SD = 14.5)
M = 66.8 (SD = 11.0)
Height (m)
M = 1.75 (SD = 0.08)
M = 1.73 (SD = 0.05)
BMI
M = 21.7 (SD = 4.9)
M = 22.3 (SD = 2.9)
Baseline VO2 (ml˙kg-1˙min-1)
M = 47.2 (SD = 7.1)
M = 45.8 (SD = 7.5)
Ethnicity
30% European; 20% East Asian; 50% Other
25% European; 58% East Asian; 32% Other
Previous Years at TAH
70% First Year; 30% Second Year
75% Second Year; 17% Third Year; 8% First Year
Figure 1. A comparison of mean scores on psychological measures between pre- and post-ABL program in responders with p < .05.
Note. Social Competence and Leadership are subscales of the Life Effectiveness Questionnaire
Table 2. Correlations Between Psychological Variables and VO2
Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. VO2
___
2. Self-Efficacy
.44*
3. Self-Esteem
.56**
4. Psychological Distress
-.52*
.30
5. Psychological Wellbeing
.17
.57**
-.13
-.24
6. Locus of Control
-.23
-.05
-.20
-.03
-.08
7. Life Effectiveness
.61**
.77**
.58**
.40
.37
-.30
Note. * p < .05 (2-tailed); ** p < .01 (2-tailed).
Introduction
Procedure
Students enrolled in a high school ABL program called Take a Hike (TAH) in Vancouver, British Columbia completed fitness testing and questionnaires at the beginning and end of the school year.
Paired t-tests were used to compare results from responders and non-responders between these two time points.
A Pearson correlation was used to assess the relationship between fitness and psychological measures.
Measures
Demographics: sex, age, school grade, weight, height, ethnicity, previous years at TAH, and VO2.
Physiological measures:
Leger 20 m shuttle run (VO2max estimated through VO2=(5.857×speed) ) [4].
VO2max refers to a person’s maximal oxygen uptake, which is directly correlated with their cardiorespiratory fitness capacity.
Psychological measures:
Rosenberg Self-Esteem, 10 items [5];
General Self-Efficacy, 10 items [6];
General Wellbeing (psychological distress [10 items]; psychological wellbeing [10 items]) [7];
Locus of Control (modified version), 14 items;
Life Effectiveness Questionnaire (LEQ-H), 24 items (subscales: time management, social competence, achievement motivation, intellectual flexibility, task leadership, emotional control, active initiative, self confidence [8].
ABL programs generally involve outdoor, experiential learning activities, which can include a wide range of activities such as hiking, orienteering, biking and kayaking.
There is accumulating evidence for the physiological benefits of physical activity, such as decreasing risk factors for obesity, cardiovascular disease, and type-2 diabetes[1].
Physical activity programs like ABL have also been shown to be capable of improving social and emotional well-being in at-risk youth [2].
In particular, significant improvements in self-concept, resilience, perceptions of alienation and self-control [2].
Research has indicated that people who improved their physical fitness compared to those who had no fitness gains following the same physical activity program (responder and non-responders, respectively) experienced significantly greater improvements in mental health and quality of life [3].
Discussion
The data suggests that ABL programs have the potential to improve self-esteem and life effectiveness in at-risk youth.
Since at-risk youth have a prevalence for depression and low self-esteem [2], ABL programs have the potential to be a valuable method of improving social and emotional well-being within these individuals.
Interestingly, there was a greater proportion of first year students in the non-responder group compared to the responder group.
Perhaps experience in the program results in greater effort put forth towards achieving physical and psychological changes.
Future Directions
Differing degrees of academic engagement have been shown to have an influence on student achievement [9], therefore in future studies it may be beneficial to include a student engagement questionnaire (eg. [9]) along with a measure for persistence as potential covariates.
Purpose
To determine whether improvements in aerobic fitness are associated with improvements in psychological outcomes.
Results
References
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[8] Richards G, Neill, J (2007) Terms of use: Life Effectiveness Questionnaire, retrieved September, 2011.
[9] Hart, S. R., Stewart, K., & Jimerson, S. R. (2011). The Student Engagement in Schools Questionnaire (SESQ) and the Teacher Engagement Report Form-New (TERF-N): Examining the Preliminary Evidence. Contemporary School Psychology, 
Fitness responders reported improvements on four psychological measures (see Figure 1):
Self-Esteem: t(11) = -3.23, p = .008; Life Effectiveness: t(11) = -3.51, p = .005; Social Competence: t(11) = -2.73, p = .02; Leadership: t(11) = -3.76, p = .003.
A Pearson Correlation using all participants yielded the following correlations between changes in fitness and changes in the following psychological variables (see Table 2):
Self-Efficacy (r = .44); Self-Esteem (r = .56); Psychological Distress (r = -.52); Life Effectiveness (r = .61).
Tyler Hamilton; UFV Student & 2016 BKin Graduate