1. The Context of Development

2. PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION Who or What is a Peer and What Functions Do Peers Serve? – Peers – social equals, operating at similar levels of behavioral complexity – Peers as Equal-Status Contacts Contribute to social competencies

3. PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION The Development of Peer Sociability – Sociability – willingness to engage others in social interaction and to seek their attention or approval

4. PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION – Peer Sociability in Infancy and Toddlerhood Begin interacting in middle of 1 st year 12–18 months – engaging in complex interactions 18 months – coordinated interactions and imitation 20–24 months – verbal component – Complementary roles Sense of intersubjectivity (the ability to share meaning, intentions, and goals) is essential for pretend play

5. PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION – Sociability During the Preschool Period Nonsocial activities – Declines with age Onlooker play – Watch but do not join Parallel play – Play side-by-side, little interaction, declines with age

6. PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION Associative play – Share, but do not cooperate to achieve shared goals Cooperative play – Collaborate – Both associative and cooperative become more common with age Play also becomes more cognitively complex with age – Predicts future social competencies

7. Table 15.1 Changes in the Cognitive Complexity of Play Activities from Infancy through the Preschool Period. Source: Adapted from “Sequences in the Development of Competent Play with Peers: Social and Social Pretend Play,” by C. Howes & C. C. Matheson, 1992., Developmental Psychology, 28, 961-974.

8. PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION Cultural Influences – Play for U.S. children appears to teach one to assert an individual identity – Children from Korea were learning to keep ego and emotions under control to promote group harmony Developmental Importance of Preschooler’s Pretend Play – Share meaning with social equals – Opportunities to compromise – Display feelings that may bother them – get social support, develop trust – Can also show emotional disturbances that require intervention

9. PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION – Peer Sociability in Middle Childhood and Adolescence 6–10 years – like formal games Contacts occur in peer groups – Interact on a regular basis – Provide a sense of belonging – Formulate norms – Develop a hierarchical organization

10. PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION Early adolescents – Form cliques – 4–8 same-sex members sharing values Midadolescence – same-sex cliques interact forming heterosexual cliques Cliques may also merge into crowds – similar attitudes and activities – Help form an identity, pave way for dating relationships

11. PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION Peer Acceptance and Popularity – Peer acceptance – extent to which a child is viewed by peers as a worthy or likeable companion Popular – liked by many, disliked by few Rejected – disliked by many, liked by few; – greatest risk of adjustment problems later in life

12. VIDEO: Social Isolation

13. PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION Neglected – not really liked or disliked, basically invisible Controversial – liked by many, disliked by many others Average-status – liked or disliked by a moderate number of peers

14. PEERS AS AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION – Why Are Children Accepted, Neglected, or Rejected by Peers? Accepted – effective at starting social interactions, responding to others Rejected – pushy and self-serving Neglected – initiate few interactions, shy away from others attempts at attention Contextual factors also play an important role

15. SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT Schools influence many aspects of development – Curricula teach academic knowledge. – Promotes cognitive and metacognitive growth by teaching problem solving skills – Informal curricula teach children skills to obey rules, cooperate, and become good citizens

16. SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT Schooling and Cognitive Development – Children who attend school Achieve cognitive milestones earlier Do better on memory tests More the better! – Transmits knowledge – Teaches problem-solving skills BUT – preschool and kindergarten should not be academically focused, rather should focus on child- centered social agendas and discovery learning

17. SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT Determinants of Effective Schooling – Effective schools promote Academic achievement Social skills Positive attitudes toward learning Low absenteeism Continuation of education beyond required age Acquisition of skills to find and hold jobs

18. SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT – Factors that Contribute to Effective Schooling Monetary support must be applied directly to classroom instruction Class Size – little effect on achievement – Best for students in K–1 st grade More extracurricular activity – Heavily involved – Positions of responsibility and leadership – Enjoy the experience

19. Figure 15.1 Rates of high school dropout as a function of student social/academic competencies and participation in extracurricular activities. Clearly, students of low or intermediate competence are more likely to stay in school of the participate in extracurricular activities and maintain a positive and voluntary connection to peers and the school environment. FROM MAHONEY & CAIRNS, 1997.

20. SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT – Scholastic Atmosphere of Successful Schools An academic emphasis A challenging, developmentally appropriate curricula; should be something students can relate to Effective classroom management Authoritative discipline practices Teamwork (faculty and principal)

21. SCHOOL AS A SOCIALIZATION AGENT – Education and Developmental Transitions Elementary to junior high – – Loss of self-esteem, interest in school, declining grades » Major physical and psychological changes at time of move » Led to development of middle schools (6–8 th grades) » Still lack of fit – need support

22. THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT 98% of American homes have at least one TV Children 3–11 watch three to four hours of TV per day Boys watch more than girls Ethnic minority children living in poverty are heavy viewers In moderation, not likely to impair – Cognitive growth – Academic achievement – Peer relations

23. THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT Development of Television Literacy – One’s ability to understand how information is conveyed on TV – Prior to age 8 or 9, process content in a piecemeal fashion Difficulty understanding chain of events Tend to focus on actions Younger than age 7, difficulty with fictional nature of TV

24. THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT Some Potentially Undesirable Effects of TV – Effects of Televised Violence Majority of programs contain repeated aggression and violence No remorse shown by, or penalty given to perpetrator Research suggests violent programs causes increase in aggression among peers

25. THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT – Does TV violence instigate aggression? Positive correlation is well demonstrated Experimental results show “yes” Longitudinal studies show the relationship is reciprocal

26. Figure 15.3 Relationship between boys’ preference for violent TV programming at age 8 and mean violence of crimes committed by age 30. ADAPTED FROM HUESSMANN, 1986.

27. THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT – Other effects of televised violence? Mean-world beliefs – Tendency to view world as a violent place by people who rely on aggression Desensitize children – Less upset about violence, more willing to tolerate acts in real life

28. THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT – Television as a Source of Social Stereotypes Gender stereotypes – Generally negative, can be a positive influence if roles are reversed – In Western cultures, the “thin ideal” is worrisome

29. THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT – Television Viewing and Children’s Health One of the strongest predictors of future obesity is the amount of time spent watching TV Also promotes poor eating habits – Snacking during TV, eat what is advertised

30. THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT – Reducing the Harmful Effects of Television Violence Parents need to monitor children’s TV viewing – Not only what to watch, but how to interpret what they are watching

31. Table 15.2 Strategies for Regulating the Effects of TV on Children’s Development.

32. THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT Television as an Educational Tool – Educational Television and Children’s Prosocial Behavior Watching prosocial programming lead to more prosocial behavior – Only lasting effects if adult monitors programs and encourages actions

33. THE EFFECTS OF TELEVISION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT – Television as a Contributor to Cognitive Development Limited research on very young children Preschool children – Sesame Street – Improved cognitive skills » Numbers, letters, vocabulary, writing, prereading skills » Beneficial for all children, regardless of SES

34. Figure 15.4 Relationship between amount of viewing of Sesame Street and children’s abilities: (a) improvement in total test scores for children grouped into different quartiles according to amount of viewing; (b) percentage of children who recited the alphabet correctly, grouped according to quartiles of amount of viewing; (c) percentage of children who wrote their first names correctly, grouped according to quartiles of amount of viewing. FROM LIEBERT & SPRAFKIN, 1988.

35. CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN THE DIGITAL AGE Computers in the Classroom – Computer-assisted instruction Discovery programs presented as games are best, drills still necessary – Word processing programs Increases writing skills – Note-organizing software also helpful

36. CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN THE DIGITAL AGE Beyond the Classroom: Benefits of Internet Exposure – Internet availability/use Increased academic achievement (among disadvantaged students) – Social Benefits Online communication promotes closer friendships – Health Benefits Source of health information

37. VIDEO: Internet Relationships

38. CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN THE DIGITAL AGE Concerns about Computers – Concerns about Video Games Moderate correlation between playing violent video games and real-world aggression – Actively involved in performing violence – Reinforced for successful symbolic violence – May be more serious than TV violence

39. CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN THE DIGITAL AGE Concerns about Internet Exposure – Concerns about Pornography and Sexual Exploration Frequent viewing leads to: – Objectification of women – Thinking of sex without affection – Increased tolerance of aggression toward women – Being more accepting of premarital and extramarital sex

40. CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN THE DIGITAL AGE Other Concerns about Internet Exposure – Internet is a recruiting tool for cults and hate organizations – Online bullying – 15% of teens isolate themselves and rely on online contact with strangers for socialization

41. CHILD DEVELOPMENT IN THE DIGITAL AGE Addressing the Concerns about Internet Exposure – Learn the technology – Place computers in public spaces in homes – Plan family activities – Limit teen’s time online – Monitor online activities