1. IMPORTANT METHODS OF ARGUMENTATION

3.  Aristotle’s Method  Stephen Toulmin’s Method

4. Aristotle  Inductive Reasoning In inductive reasoning we collect bits of evidence on which to base generalizations The Inductive Leap: Since thoroughness is often impractical if not impossible, inductive reasoning involves making a leap from the evidence to the conclusion.  Deductive Reasoning The syllogism

5. SYLLOGISM  Major premise  Minor premise  Conclusion  All men are mortal  Socrates is a man.  Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

6. REMEMBER FALLACIES  Never assume that your syllogism is airtight– be careful to remember the things that can go wrong with reasoning. Here is an example of a faulty syllogism…  “Animals, which move, have limbs and muscles. The earth has no limbs and muscles. Hence, the Earth does not move.”  What is the flaw?

7. Real Life Example…(Mainly because Mrs. Lamar LOOOVE’s House.)  Dr. House: Words have set meanings for a reason. If you see an animal like Bill and you try to play fetch, Bill's going to eat you, because Bill's a bear. Little Girl: Bill has fur, four legs, and a collar. He's a dog. Dr. House: You see, that's what's called a faulty syllogism; just because you call Bill a dog doesn't mean that he is... a dog. ("Merry Little Christmas,” House, M.D.)

8. Syllogism Example #1  Major Premise: Sixty men can do a piece of work sixty times as quickly as one man. Minor Premise: One man can dig a posthole in sixty seconds; therefore-- Conclusion: Sixty men can dig a posthole in one second. This may be called the syllogism arithmetical, in which, by combining logic and mathematics, we obtain a double certainty and are twice blessed." (Ambrose Bierce, The Devil's Dictionary)

9. Syllogism Example #2 Major premise: All asteroids are made of rock. Minor premise: Ceres is an asteroid. Conclusion: Ceres is made of rock.Major premise Minor premise Conclusion

10. Label this one on your own… Fluffy is not a cat. Fluffy enjoys the company of snakes. No cat enjoys the company of snakes.

11. And this one… Some kinds of cheese smell like feet. I will not eat anything that smells like feet. There are some kinds of cheese I will not eat.

12. Who is Stephen Toulmin and why do I care?  A British philosopher, author and educator  Devoted his works to the analysis of moral reasoning  His writing “seeks to develop practical arguments which can be used effectively in evaluating the ethics behind moral issues.”

13. Toulmin  Toulmin Parts Data Claim Warrant Backing Qualifier Rebuttal

14. CLAIM  Conclusions whose merit must be established

15. DATA  The facts appealed to as a foundation for the claim

16. WARRANT  The statement authorizing the movement from the data to the claim  Toulmin stated that an argument is only as strong as its weakest warrant and if a warrant isn’t valid, then the whole argument collapses.

17. BACKING  Facts that give credibility to the statement expressed in the warrant; backing must be introduced when the warrant itself is not convincing enough to the readers or the listeners.

18. REBUTTAL  Statements recognizing the restrictions to which the claim may legitimately be applied.

19. QUALIFIER  Words or phrases expressing how certain the author/ speaker is concerning the claim

20. NOTE  The first three elements, “claim,” “data,” and “warrant” are considered the essential components of practical arguments, while the others may not be needed in some arguments

21. EXAMPLE  CLAIM- You should buy our tooth-whitening product  DATA- Studies show that teeth are 50% whiter after using the product for a specified time  WARRANT- People want whiter teeth  BACKING– Celebrities want whiter teeth  REBUTTAL– Commercial says “unless you don’t want to attract guys”  QUALIFIER– Fine print says “product must be used six weeks for results”

22. http://www.chickfilapressroom.com/images/eatmorchickin/3-cows.jpg

23. Thanks to the following sources for the information included in this presentation… Kennedy, X.J., Dorothy Kennedy and Jane E. Aaron Eds. The Bedford Reader 9th ed. Boston: Bedford/ St. Martin’s, 2006. McFerran, Doug. “Constructing Syllogisms.” 22 August 2008. McFerran, Doug. “Recognizing Valid Forms.” 22 August 2008. Toulmin’s Schema– Free Online Course Materials. 19 September 2007.