1. Chapter 8: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood McGraw-Hill © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Physical Changes

3. Children’s body growth and change: –Average growth is 2.5 inches and 5-7 pounds a year during early childhood (less for girls than for boys) –Growth variation due to genetics, nutrition, prenatal problems, experiences, and SES –Factors that affect child’s growth: Growth hormone deficiency Mother smoked during pregnancy –Brain growth in early childhood is not as rapid as in infancy – changes occur in neurons

4. Changes in child’s brain structure: –Increase in number and size of nerve endings –Increased myelination: better focus, coordination –Increased dopamine concentration and most rapid growth in frontal lobe during ages 3 to 6 years –Rapid growth spurt periods and drastic tissue loss of unneeded cells – brain is always “reorganizing” More research is needed to chart connections between cognitive development, brain structure, and information processing

5. Prefrontal cortex Figure 8.1 The Prefrontal Cortex This portion of the brain (bright blue) shows extensive development from 3 to 6 years of age and is believed to play important roles in attention and working memory

6. Gross motor development in children: –Simple run-and-jump movements enjoyed at age 3 –Child is more adventurous at age 4 –Child is self-assured taking hair-raising risks at age 5 Fine motor skills in children: –Picks up tiniest objects at age 3 but still a little clumsy –Has trouble building high towers with blocks at age 4 –Has better eye, hand, and body coordination at age 5 –Right-handedness is dominant in all cultures and appears to be genetically influenced

7. Figure 8.2 Development of Gross Motor Skills in Early Childhood 37 to 48 months49 to 60 months61 to 72 months Throws ball underhand Rides tricycle 10 ft Catches large ball With help does forward somersault Jumps 12 inches to floor Does 3 hops with 2 feet Steps on footprint pattern Catches bounced ball Bounces & catches ball Runs 10 ft and stops Pushes/pulls a wagon or doll buggy Kicks 10-inch ball toward target Carries 12 lb object Catches ball Bounces ball under control Does 4 hops on one foot Throws ball (44 ft – boys; 25 ft – girls) Carries a 16 lb object Kicks rolling ball Skips alternating feet Roller skates Skips rope Rolls ball to hit object Rides bike with training wheels (Listed in approximate order of difficulty in each period)

8. Figure 8.3 Development of Fine Motor Skills in Early Childhood 37 to 48 months49 to 60 months61 to 72 months Approximates a circle in drawing Cuts paper Pastes using pointer finger Builds 3-block bridge Builds 8-block tower Draws 0 and + Dresses and undresses doll Pours from pitcher without spilling Strings and laces shoelaces Cuts following a line Strings 10 beads Copies figure X Opens and places clothespins (one- handed) Builds a 5-block bridge Pours from various containers Prints first name Folds paper in halves and quarters Traces around hand Draws rectangle, circle, square, and triangle Cuts interior piece from paper Uses crayons appropriately Makes clay object with 2 small parts Reproduces letters Copies 2 short words (Listed in approximate order of difficulty in each period)

9. –About 95% of right-handed people primarily process speech in left hemisphere of brain –Left-handers are More likely to have reading problems More common in musicians, mathematicians, architects, and artists

10. Nutrition in children: –What is eaten affects skeletal growth, body shape, and susceptibility to disease –Average preschooler needs 1,700 calories per day –Energy needs of individual children of same age, sex, and size may vary –Calories from fat should be limited

11. Child obesity is –A serious problem in the United States –Linked to diabetes, low levels of fitness, low self-esteem, and iron deficiency anemia Leading causes of death in U.S. children are –Accidents –Cancer –Birth defects –Heart disease Of concern for children’s safety today: exposure to tobacco smoke and its link to respiratory problems & vitamin C deficiency

12. Figure 8.4 Main Causes of Death in Children 1–4 Years of Age Influenza and pneumonia Diseases of the heart Assault (homicides) 12.5 0.8 1.2 2.5 2.8 3.6 Malignant neoplasms Congenial malformations, deformations, & chromosomal abnormalities Accidents (unintentional injuries) (Motor vehicle 4.3) (Other accidents 8.2) Deaths per 100,000 children Figures based on 1999 U.S. survey

13. Poor health of children from low SES is of concern About 11 million children are malnourished and at higher risk for diseases and lead poisoning UNICEF’s annual reports of “under-5 mortality rate” –Nutritional health and knowledge of mothers –Levels of immunization, dehydration, income –Availability of health services, clean water –Overall safety of environment and sanitation

14. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 Sweden Sierra Leone Haiti China Mexico Russia U.S. Canada Czech Republic 19313885102121 158 161178 1990 - 2001 1960 - 1990 Under-5 mortality ranking in 2001 Rankings and Average Annual Percentage Reduction in Under-5 Mortality 1960–2001 Average annual reduction rate (%)

15. Cognitive Changes

16. A preschooler’s world is creative, free, and fanciful –Piaget’s preoperational stage: ages 2–7 years Child cannot think without acting Operations allow child to mentally rehearse future physical acts, but thinking is still flawed First substage of preoperational thought: Symbolic functions include scribbled drawings representing real objects Child at age 2–4, still very egocentric and animistic

17. Figure 8.7 The Symbolic Drawings of Young Children “Pelican” “Nose” “More eyes” “Eyes” “Seal ” (b) (a) (a) 3½-year-old’s drawing of “a pelican kissing a seal” compared with (b) 11-year- old’s drawing which is more realistic and less inventive

18. BC A BCA Figure 8.8 Piaget’s Conservation Task Child is asked if (A) and (C) have the same amount of liquid. The preoperational child says “no” and will point to (C) as having more liquid than (A). Two identical beakers shown to child, and then experimenter pours liquid from (B) into (C)

19. Second substage of preoperational thought –Intuitive thought: child uses primitive reasoning but is still centric in thought, lacks conservation abilities Preoperational child’s inability to mentally reverse actions applies to numbers, length, volume, and area Some claim Piaget’s views were not completely correct Between ages 3-5, children exhaust adults with “why” questions – the questions give clues to the child’s mental development and reflect intellectual curiosity

20. Type of conservation NumberMatterLength Initial presentation Two identical rows of objects shown to child Two identical balls of clay shown to child Two sticks are aligned in front of child Manipulation One row is spaced Experimenter changes shape of one ball Experimenter moves one stick to right Preoperational child’s answer to “Are they still the same?” “No, the longer row has more” “No, the longer one has more” “No, the one on top is longer” Figure 8.9 Some Dimensions of Conservation: Number, Matter, and Length

21. Vygotsky’s theory: –Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Lower limit can be achieved by child alone Upper limit can be achieved by child’s skills with adult guidance and instruction Other limits can’t be achieved yet – Scaffolding involves changing level of support during a teaching session – close, direct instruction is reduced –Language is used for social communication, solving tasks, and monitoring one’s own behavior

22. Vygotsky claims that –Language and thought develop independently of each other and then merge –Child uses language to communicate with others before she/he can focus on inward thoughts –Transition to use of internal speech occurs between ages 3 and 7, and is followed by action without speaking aloud Socially competent children use private speech more Piaget: self-talk is egocentric and reflects immaturity Research finds private speech is used more in difficult tasks; users are more attentive and perform better

23. Vygotsky’s recommended teaching strategies: –Effectively assess child’s ZPD –Use the child’s ZPD in teaching –Used more-skilled peers as tutors –Monitor child and encourage private speech –Place instruction in meaningful context –Transform the classroom with Vygotskian ideas Using Vygotsky’s ideas, children from collaborative schools were more cooperative

24. Vygotsky Strong emphasis Social constructivist No general stages Zone of proximal development, language, dialogue, tools of the culture It has a major role in shaping thought It has a central role Teacher is facilitator and guide, not director Piaget Little emphasis Cognitive constructivist Strong emphasis on stages Schemata, assimilation, accommodation, operations, conservation, classification, hypothetical-deductive reasoning It has a minimal role It just defines existing skills Teacher is facilitator and guide, not director Figure 8.11 Comparison of Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Theories Sociocultural Context Constructivism Stages Key processes Role of language View on education Implications for teacher

25. A child’s ability to pay attention changes significantly during preschool years Memory: –Short-term: one can retain information up to 30 seconds with no rehearsal – memory span increases (in digits) with age but varies between individuals –Speed and efficiency of memory process improves with age and experience –Young children can remember a great amount of information when given the right cues and prompts

26. Figure 8.12 The Planfulness of Attention J (b)(a) J In 3 pairs of houses, the windows were different. In 3 pairs of houses, all windows were identical. By filming the reflection in children’s eyes, one could determine what they looked at, how long they looked, and the sequence of their eye movements. Children under 6 were different from older children in this study.

27. Figure 8.13 Developmental Changes in Memory Span In one study: memory span increased from 3 digits at age 2, to 5 digits at age 7, to 7 digits at age 12. 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 62810Adult412 Age (years) Digit Span

28. The young child’s theory of mind: –Age 2–3: children begin to understand three mental states – perceptions, desires, emotions –Age 4–5: children understand “false beliefs” and that people can be mistaken –Only beyond preschool years do children have a deepening appreciation of the mind –In middle and late childhood, children understand beliefs are “interpretive”

29. Figure 8.15 Developmental Changes in False-Belief Performance 203040506070809010010 20 0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 Age (months) Percentage Correct

30. Language Development

31. As children develop through early childhood, they –Grasp the rules of grammar at a rapid rate –Make all sounds of their language –Use most parts of speech correctly –Overgeneralize the rules –Manipulate syntactic structures By age 6, the average child has a speaking vocabulary of 8,000 to 14,000 words At age 6, average child is learning 22 words per day and understands past, present, and future

32. Early Childhood Education

33. Variations in early childhood education: –Child-centered kindergarten: focus on whole child –Montessori approach: teacher is facilitator, child has freedom, with emphasis on peer interaction –Reggio Emilia approach: mostly for special children in Italy, learning by investigation and exploration of topics Educational practices should be developmentally appropriate, taking into consideration the uniqueness of the child

34. Project Head Start to help the disadvantaged: –Federally funded, created in 1965 –Not all programs in the U.S. are equal –Seeks to intervene where there is a lack of enriched early childhood educational experiences Issues in early childhood education: –What should the curriculum be? –Does preschool matter? –When is a child ready for school?

35. 30 0 10 40 50 60 70 20 JapanU.S. Comparison of Japanese and U.S. Parents’ Views on the Purpose of Preschool Percentage of parents who say that the purpose of preschool is to give children experience in being a member of a group Figure 8.18

36. The End