1. 1 FB5003–6 Strategic IS Planning “We don’t do IT projects at JetBlue. We do Business Projects” – CIO Joseph Eng.

2. 2 Story One The CEO of an insurance company wonders why a key competitor seems so much more innovative and responsive to customer needs. “How do they manage to initiate, customize, and support such a variety of insurance products so quickly?” she asks. “We could not cope with the complex information processing that must be required! What are they doing differently with their people and technology? Our systems personnel are always bogged down with last year’s priorities…” The CEO of an insurance company wonders why a key competitor seems so much more innovative and responsive to customer needs. “How do they manage to initiate, customize, and support such a variety of insurance products so quickly?” she asks. “We could not cope with the complex information processing that must be required! What are they doing differently with their people and technology? Our systems personnel are always bogged down with last year’s priorities…” Chan, MISQE, 1, 2, 97-112.

3. 3 Analysis The competitor: The competitor: has developed core competence in the application of IS to business needs. has developed core competence in the application of IS to business needs. has developed the ability to respond to business conditions effectively (business intelligence + KM) has developed the ability to respond to business conditions effectively (business intelligence + KM) has employees who has employees who can apply relevant knowledge efficiently & effectively. can apply relevant knowledge efficiently & effectively. are focused on today’s tasks are focused on today’s tasks has identified information as a critical resource has identified information as a critical resource ensures that the IS fits and supports the business ensures that the IS fits and supports the business has, in consequence, a better Business-IS alignment has, in consequence, a better Business-IS alignment

4. 4 Story Two A CIO wonders when he will be accepted at top management meetings. Although he has won a long, hard battle to be present at these meetings, to understand new business directions better, he senses that his presence is merely tolerated. His ideas have little clout. His colleagues acknowledge that IT is becoming increasingly important to business operations, but their thinking and behavior stifle innovation. A CIO wonders when he will be accepted at top management meetings. Although he has won a long, hard battle to be present at these meetings, to understand new business directions better, he senses that his presence is merely tolerated. His ideas have little clout. His colleagues acknowledge that IT is becoming increasingly important to business operations, but their thinking and behavior stifle innovation. Chan, MISQE, 2, 1, 97-112.

5. 5 Analysis The organisation itself barely recognises the importance of information The organisation itself barely recognises the importance of information The CIO is marginalised The CIO is marginalised perhaps useful as someone important for operational support, but not strategic planning. perhaps useful as someone important for operational support, but not strategic planning. The organisation is probably failing to align its overall business direction with its IS policies, skills, capabilities The organisation is probably failing to align its overall business direction with its IS policies, skills, capabilities

6. 6 Story Three The CEO says to his board “we need a new kind of CIO; someone who understands our whole business, someone whose career is *not* over [laughter], someone who can help drive this company in these turbulent times. Do people like this exist?”. The CEO says to his board “we need a new kind of CIO; someone who understands our whole business, someone whose career is *not* over [laughter], someone who can help drive this company in these turbulent times. Do people like this exist?”.

7. 7 Analysis Historically, CIOs were expected NOT to understand the business Historically, CIOs were expected NOT to understand the business They just fixed the IT They just fixed the IT Today, if you don’t understand the business, you can’t be a CIO. Today, if you don’t understand the business, you can’t be a CIO. So CIOs do have a future career! So CIOs do have a future career! But what kind of background would a new CIO have? But what kind of background would a new CIO have? And why is the CEO talking like this? And why is the CEO talking like this?

8. Analysis In fact, this new CIO should more correctly be called a CDO – a Chief Digital Officer In fact, this new CIO should more correctly be called a CDO – a Chief Digital Officer Who has considerable mandate (power, authority, respect) to effect change, digital change, in the organisation Who has considerable mandate (power, authority, respect) to effect change, digital change, in the organisation Who is aiming to disrupt the competition through digital technologies Who is aiming to disrupt the competition through digital technologies 8

9. Story Four “Every time my colleagues have a bright idea, an inspiration, an opportunity for innovation, I take it to the CSO, but I can always predict his reaction!” “Every time my colleagues have a bright idea, an inspiration, an opportunity for innovation, I take it to the CSO, but I can always predict his reaction!” “NO!” The CSO is now the CNO! 9

10. Analysis Why can CSOs be so negative and antipathetic towards innovation? Why can CSOs be so negative and antipathetic towards innovation? Why do they always say No? Why do they always say No? Can a CSO and a CDO merge? Can a CSO and a CDO merge? 10

11. 11 Questions to Ask about Organisational IS Does IS drive your organisation’s competitiveness? Does IS drive your organisation’s competitiveness? What role does IS play in your corporate strategy? What role does IS play in your corporate strategy? Mission critical, integrated? Mission critical, integrated? Peripheral, supporting? Peripheral, supporting? Now? Five years later? Now? Five years later? Are significant resources devoted to IS, or just a few $$ here and there? Are significant resources devoted to IS, or just a few $$ here and there? Are IS people deeply engaged in many aspects of your business? Are IS people deeply engaged in many aspects of your business?

12. IS, the CDO and Innovation Does IS drive innovation in your company? Does IS drive innovation in your company? Does IS support departmental innovations? Does IS support departmental innovations? Or is IS the Department of No, the antidote to good ideas? Or is IS the Department of No, the antidote to good ideas? IBM: 80% of CIOs routinely failed to pursue innovative business opportunities. IBM: 80% of CIOs routinely failed to pursue innovative business opportunities. So who would be the CDO’s natural allies in a drive for innovation and digitisation? So who would be the CDO’s natural allies in a drive for innovation and digitisation? 12

13. Innovation, Bricolage and Shadow Systems If employees are a) innovative and b) frustrated with the slow speed of change, then they may develop their own ‘shadow’ or ‘feral’ systems, acting as bricoleurs If employees are a) innovative and b) frustrated with the slow speed of change, then they may develop their own ‘shadow’ or ‘feral’ systems, acting as bricoleurs These enable them to get work done by working around formal corporate systems These enable them to get work done by working around formal corporate systems As examples of innovation, these can be valuable, but the CSO won’t be happy As examples of innovation, these can be valuable, but the CSO won’t be happy So how far should innovation go? So how far should innovation go? 13

14. Shadow Systems in Ravine Ravine is a global hotel group, with very conservative (No) values Ravine is a global hotel group, with very conservative (No) values Ravine operates standardised systems globally – no social media, no threats to corporate integrity Ravine operates standardised systems globally – no social media, no threats to corporate integrity This No-Culture means inefficiency, ineffectiveness and frustration This No-Culture means inefficiency, ineffectiveness and frustration Employees and managers develop workarounds to get their work done Employees and managers develop workarounds to get their work done 14

15. Shadow Systems in Your Company? Who uses Dropbox for work? Who uses Dropbox for work? Is this allowed or not regulated or encouraged? Company policy? Is this allowed or not regulated or encouraged? Company policy? Is it used for work/confidential files? Is it used for work/confidential files? Is Dropbox secure enough? Is Dropbox secure enough? Do you feel that your corporate systems don’t support your work processes? Do you feel that your corporate systems don’t support your work processes? What can/do you do about it? What can/do you do about it? 15

16. Innovative Companies Which companies exemplify: Which companies exemplify: Innovative Use of IS? Innovative Use of IS? The Yes Culture The Yes Culture Conservative Use of IS? Conservative Use of IS? The No Culture The No Culture The Disruptive Use of Technology? The Disruptive Use of Technology? The CDO in charge The CDO in charge 16

17. Innovation at Haier Haier prides itself on innovation and agility Haier prides itself on innovation and agility Each employee, individually, is encouraged to be innovative, to be responsible for a personal contribution to the firm’s success Each employee, individually, is encouraged to be innovative, to be responsible for a personal contribution to the firm’s success This requires an organisational culture that rewards individual initiative and values agility This requires an organisational culture that rewards individual initiative and values agility 17

18. 18 Enterprise Agility? The ability to respond innovatively and rapidly (a Yes Culture) to market challenges and opportunities. The ability to respond innovatively and rapidly (a Yes Culture) to market challenges and opportunities. Agile management is a critical part of an agile enterprise. Agile management is a critical part of an agile enterprise. Distributed and collaborative power structures Distributed and collaborative power structures Responsibility, accountability, appreciation Responsibility, accountability, appreciation Easily accessible resources Easily accessible resources People, knowledge, social media … People, knowledge, social media … When change is the competitive driver, nothing is sacred When change is the competitive driver, nothing is sacred

19. The Digital Process Just as change is a process, so is digital Just as change is a process, so is digital It is not a thing. It is a way of thinking and a way of doing things. It is not a thing. It is a way of thinking and a way of doing things. Digital processes enable digital disruptions if the mind-set is attuned Digital processes enable digital disruptions if the mind-set is attuned Self-navigation, maintenance and on-board entertainment in cars drawing on IoT Self-navigation, maintenance and on-board entertainment in cars drawing on IoT Supply chain improvements from RFID, big data and analytics Supply chain improvements from RFID, big data and analytics 19

20. 20 What about Risks? Risks are involved in different aspects of an IS portfolio. Risks are involved in different aspects of an IS portfolio. The level of the risk depends on the importance of the IS to the organisation The level of the risk depends on the importance of the IS to the organisation Risks apply to software & applications, hardware, networks, procedures, … and … people & culture. Risks apply to software & applications, hardware, networks, procedures, … and … people & culture. Each element in an IS portfolio needs to be risk-assessed. Each element in an IS portfolio needs to be risk-assessed.

21. The Risk of Not Innovating CIOs and CSOs are often risk-focused CIOs and CSOs are often risk-focused They don’t want all their regular systems to be disrupted / damaged by malware, viruses, bugs. So it is easier to say ‘No’ to new ideas. They don’t want all their regular systems to be disrupted / damaged by malware, viruses, bugs. So it is easier to say ‘No’ to new ideas. New ideas mean more work and more risk New ideas mean more work and more risk But failing to innovate is counterproductive in the long run. But failing to innovate is counterproductive in the long run. Another firm will take the risk so as to compete better Another firm will take the risk so as to compete better 21

22. The Risk of Extinction Digital Laggards (those who adopt very late or not at all) run the real risk of losing their customers (or their employees) and going extinct Digital Laggards (those who adopt very late or not at all) run the real risk of losing their customers (or their employees) and going extinct Because others who have adopted will steal their thunder Because others who have adopted will steal their thunder Ever fewer people want to work in a technologically impoverished environment for a digital dinosaur Ever fewer people want to work in a technologically impoverished environment for a digital dinosaur 22

23. Digital Disruption In the 1980s-90s, DEC and Wang went out of business due to disruption by PCs. In the 1980s-90s, DEC and Wang went out of business due to disruption by PCs. PCs now may soon follow, disrupted by tablets PCs now may soon follow, disrupted by tablets Airbnb, Uber and Zipcar are similarly disrupting physical channels Airbnb, Uber and Zipcar are similarly disrupting physical channels The disruptive champions are often the insurgents, not the incumbents The disruptive champions are often the insurgents, not the incumbents 23

24. It is not too late… (!!) We see early examples of digital disruption, but while the trend is clear, other incumbents have time to react – before they go extinct We see early examples of digital disruption, but while the trend is clear, other incumbents have time to react – before they go extinct But they need acute foresight and the willingness to act boldly But they need acute foresight and the willingness to act boldly “Companies rarely die from moving too fast, [yet] frequently die from moving too slowly” (CEO Netflix) “Companies rarely die from moving too fast, [yet] frequently die from moving too slowly” (CEO Netflix) 24

25. Innovation is Key to Success We should encourage new ideas, and find ways for them not to harm security We should encourage new ideas, and find ways for them not to harm security This means that the CIO/CSO/CDO has to both take a security/risk perspective and help business units develop their ideas This means that the CIO/CSO/CDO has to both take a security/risk perspective and help business units develop their ideas But not just to say ‘No’ every time. But not just to say ‘No’ every time. This is another radical change to thinking and acting This is another radical change to thinking and acting 25

26. Business-Defined IS All IS functions should reflect and satisfy a business need All IS functions should reflect and satisfy a business need IS = Business = Digital Success IS = Business = Digital Success But this means embedding IS (people, processes) into each business unit. But this means embedding IS (people, processes) into each business unit. Also business people need to understand IS opportunities, capabilities, constraints Also business people need to understand IS opportunities, capabilities, constraints Which is why we teach IS to MBAs! Which is why we teach IS to MBAs! 26

27. Business-IS Interactions Achieving that shared Business & IS success requires excellent Achieving that shared Business & IS success requires excellent Communication, Collaboration, Cooperation Communication, Collaboration, Cooperation Cross learning/training Cross learning/training Shared and aligned goals (no more silos) Shared and aligned goals (no more silos) Trust, Transparency Trust, Transparency Internal spaces for interaction Internal spaces for interaction People – with both business & technical skills People – with both business & technical skills 27

28. 28 Business-IS Alignment “the degree to which the IS mission, objectives and plans support and are supported by the business mission, objectives and plans” “the degree to which the IS mission, objectives and plans support and are supported by the business mission, objectives and plans” [Reich & Benbasat, MISQ, 24, 1, p.82] [Reich & Benbasat, MISQ, 24, 1, p.82] “fit” & “integration” among business strategy, IS strategy, business infrastructure, and IS infrastructure. “fit” & “integration” among business strategy, IS strategy, business infrastructure, and IS infrastructure. [Henderson & Venkatraman, IBMSJ, 32, 1, 4-16] [Henderson & Venkatraman, IBMSJ, 32, 1, 4-16] Effective IS management requires a both a balance and effective alignment across four domains. Effective IS management requires a both a balance and effective alignment across four domains.

29. 29 Henderson & Venkatraman’s Strategic Alignment Model Strategy Alignment Process (Linkage & Automation) IS Infrastructure and Processes IS Strategy IS Transformation Organisational Infrastructure and Processes Business Products and Services IS Products and Services Internal Business Transformation External Business Strategy Business Domain IS Domain Adapted from Henderson & Venkatraman, 1992

30. 30 Practical Issues How can we align IS and the Business? How can we align IS and the Business? How can we balance the different activities? How can we balance the different activities? How can we remain agile to emerging opportunities? How can we remain agile to emerging opportunities? By considering the interests of a range of stakeholders By considering the interests of a range of stakeholders By looking at the business, and its operating context, as a whole By looking at the business, and its operating context, as a whole By changing internal processes and going digital By changing internal processes and going digital

31. 31 The Balanced Scorecard One way to achieve alignment, accountability, agility and innovation is to use the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) One way to achieve alignment, accountability, agility and innovation is to use the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) The BSC was designed in recognition of the limitations of financial accounting measures: The BSC was designed in recognition of the limitations of financial accounting measures: They provide a narrow and incomplete picture of business performance They provide a narrow and incomplete picture of business performance They hinder the creation of future business value They hinder the creation of future business value They are lagging not leading measures They are lagging not leading measures

32. 32 Financial Perspective Are we meeting the expectations of shareholders? Customer Perspective Are we delighting (or at least satisfying) our customers? Internal Process Perspective Are we doing the right things? Are we doing things right? Learning and Growth Perspective Are we prepared for the future? Adapted from Kaplan & Norton (1992) Perspectives & Relationships in the Balanced Scorecard

33. 33 Translating the Vision into Desired Outcomes VISION Intended Direction/Destination Balanced Scorecard What do we want to achieve? STRATEGY How will we achieve “success”? Strategic Initiatives What do we need to do? Personal Initiatives What do I need to do? DESIRED OUTCOMES Satisfied Shareholders Delighted Customers Effective & Efficient Processes Motivated & Prepared Workforce Martinsons, 2005

34. 34 From Desired Outcomes to Initiatives Motivated & Prepared Workforce Motivation Preparation What initiatives will improve employee motivation? better prepare employees to be innovative? but also what initiatives will create more efficient / effective processes? delight customers? Martinsons, 2005

35. 35 MTR Corporate Strategy Map Revenue Operating Cost Shareholder Value Satisfaction Index Market Share Patronage Safety Index Service Pledge Talent Leadership Manpower & Succession Strategic Alignment Partnering & Teamwork Employee Satisfaction Culture Organisational Capability Customer Processes Financial Learning & Growth © MTR, 2005

36. 36 Southwest Airlines Southwest uses a different balanced scorecard layout to achieve the same kind of planning objective. Southwest uses a different balanced scorecard layout to achieve the same kind of planning objective. Note the detailed objectives, measures, targets, and initiatives. Note the detailed objectives, measures, targets, and initiatives. This is a general BSC – not IS specific – but note that IS will play a critical support role, e.g. in data collection/analysis. This is a general BSC – not IS specific – but note that IS will play a critical support role, e.g. in data collection/analysis.

37. 37 Airline Scorecard Parameters Objectives Fast ground turnaround Objectives: What the strategy is trying to achieve Targets 30 Minutes 90% Targets: The level of performance or rate of improve- ment needed Cycle time optimization Initiatives: Key action programs required to achieve targets InitiativesMeasures On Ground Time On-Time Departure Measures: How success or failure is monitored Strategic Theme: Operating Efficiency Profits and RONA Financial Learning Ground crew alignment Lowest prices Fewer planes Customer Internal Fast ground turnaround Strategy Map On-time Service Attract & Retain More Customers Grow Revenues Wagner, 2003

38. 38 % Ground crew trained % Ground crew stockholders The Scorecard is a Programme for Action ObjectivesMeasures # Customers FAA On Time Arrival Rating Market Survey On Ground Time On-Time Departure Strategic Theme: Operating Efficiency Initiatives Cycle time optimization Ground crew training ESOP Customer loyalty program Quality management Targets 30% CAGR 20% CAGR 5% CAGR 12% growth Ranked #1 30 Minutes 90% yr. 1 70% yr. 3 90% yr. 5 100% Profitability Grow Revenues Fewer planes More Customers Flight is on-time Lowest prices Fast ground turnaround Ground crew alignment Strategic Theme: Operations Excellence Profits and RONA Financial Learning Ground crew alignment Fewer planes Customer Internal Fast ground turnaround Strategy Map Attract & Retain More Customers Grow Revenues Lowest prices On-time Service Wagner, 2003

39. 39 IS dept is an internal service supplier IS dept is an internal service supplier IS projects are carried out for end- users and the organisation IS projects are carried out for end- users and the organisation Four Perspectives for IS Four Perspectives for IS business value business value internal processes internal processes user orientation user orientation future readiness future readiness What About a Balanced IS Scorecard?

40. 40 Business Value Perspective Are we satisfying management? Are we adding value? User Perspective Are we delighting (or at least satisfying) our users? Internal Process Perspective Are we doing the right things? Are we doing things right? Future Readiness Perspective Are we ready for the emerging technologies & practices? The Balanced IS Scorecard

41. 41 Extension to the BSC Extension to the BSC innovation and learning (future readiness) innovation and learning (future readiness) the specifics of monitoring and control (key measures ) the specifics of monitoring and control (key measures ) Measuring and evaluating business value Measuring and evaluating business value short-term cost-benefit evaluation short-term cost-benefit evaluation cost control, selling to third parties cost control, selling to third parties long-term perspective (based on information economics) long-term perspective (based on information economics) business value of IT project, strategic options and risks business value of IT project, strategic options and risks business value of IT department/functional area business value of IT department/functional area Measuring and Evaluating IS (1)

42. 42 Measuring and evaluating user orientation Measuring and evaluating user orientation metrics for being the preferred supplier of applications and operations metrics for being the preferred supplier of applications and operations metrics for building and maintaining relationships with users metrics for building and maintaining relationships with users metrics for satisfying end-user needs metrics for satisfying end-user needs Measuring and Evaluating IS (2)

43. 43 Measuring and evaluating internal processes Measuring and evaluating internal processes The planning and prioritization of IS projects The planning and prioritization of IS projects The development of new IT applications The development of new IT applications The operation and maintenance of current IT applications The operation and maintenance of current IT applications Measuring and evaluating future readiness Measuring and evaluating future readiness Improving the skill set of IS specialists Improving the skill set of IS specialists Updating the applications portfolio Updating the applications portfolio Putting effort into researching emerging technologies Putting effort into researching emerging technologies Measuring and Evaluating IS (3)

44. 44 Develop awareness of the BSC/IS concept Develop awareness of the BSC/IS concept Collect and analyse data Collect and analyse data Define company-specific objectives & goals Define company-specific objectives & goals Develop preliminary BSC/IS Develop preliminary BSC/IS Solicit stakeholder comments and feedback Solicit stakeholder comments and feedback Reach a consensus on BSC/IS Reach a consensus on BSC/IS Communicate both BSC/IS and its underlying rationale to all stakeholders Communicate both BSC/IS and its underlying rationale to all stakeholders Gain employee buy-in and innovation Gain employee buy-in and innovation Building a Balanced IS Scorecard (1)

45. 45 Three principles for BSC Three principles for BSC Cause-and-effect Cause-and-effect Performance drivers Performance drivers Linkage to financial measures Linkage to financial measures Three criteria for BSC/IS metrics Three criteria for BSC/IS metrics quantifiable quantifiable easy to understand easy to understand cost-effective to measure cost-effective to measure One over-riding concern One over-riding concern Ensure that the BSC/IS is aligned with the corporate BSC Ensure that the BSC/IS is aligned with the corporate BSC Building a Balanced IS Scorecard (2)

46. Scorecard Details For each of the four perspectives in a scorecard there are four items to identify: The objective is what you want to achieve The initiative is the action to take to achieve the objective The measure is the thing that you are measuring so as to assess if you have achieved the objective – it must be quantitative or quantifiable The target is the precise amount of the measure at a certain point in time. 46

47. 47 PerspectivesObjectivesInitiativesMeasuresTargets Business Value Increase profit $ 10% CAGR User Delighted users Involve users in sys-tems design procedures User satisf- action index 95% satisfied by 2015; 99% by 2018 Internal Process ???? Future Readiness Skilled IT staff Focused training budget Prof & Acad Quals 100% with MSc by 2015; 75% with PhD by 2018 BSC for the IS Support Unit of a Global Shipping Firm

48. 48 Questions for Slide 47 1.Suggest suitable internal process objectives, measures, targets and initiatives. 1.Suggest suitable internal process objectives, measures, targets and initiatives. 2.Explain why the user perspective initiative may not result in the the intended objectives being achieved. 2.Explain why the user perspective initiative may not result in the the intended objectives being achieved. 3.How does the label “user perspective” constrain the work that the IS support unit does? 3.How does the label “user perspective” constrain the work that the IS support unit does? 4.Why is it so critical that the IS support unit establish relationships between initiatives and objectives in its BSC? 4.Why is it so critical that the IS support unit establish relationships between initiatives and objectives in its BSC? 5.How should this BSC/IS be aligned with the corporate BSC? 5.How should this BSC/IS be aligned with the corporate BSC?

49. 49 Errors to Avoid Errors to Avoid failure to include specific long-term objectives failure to include specific long-term objectives failure to relate key measures to performance drivers by means of cause-and-effect relationships failure to relate key measures to performance drivers by means of cause-and-effect relationships failure to communicate the contents of, and rationale for the BSC/IS failure to communicate the contents of, and rationale for the BSC/IS failure to integrate the BSC/IS with a corporate BSC failure to integrate the BSC/IS with a corporate BSC All employees should be encouraged to use the BSC to gain a holistic understanding of the organisation All employees should be encouraged to use the BSC to gain a holistic understanding of the organisation Lessons 1

50. 50 Lessons 2 Critical Success Factors Critical Success Factors Identify key cause-effect relationships, performance drivers and measures Identify key cause-effect relationships, performance drivers and measures This is very hard for non-financial/quantifiable measures This is very hard for non-financial/quantifiable measures Make measures simple and measurable Make measures simple and measurable Very hard to collect reliable data, but IS can help Very hard to collect reliable data, but IS can help Maintain intra-organisational communication Maintain intra-organisational communication Link BSC/IS to performance appraisal criteria for individual IS specialists Link BSC/IS to performance appraisal criteria for individual IS specialists Ensure staff awareness of the BSC and its value. Ensure staff awareness of the BSC and its value.

51. 51 Are the perspectives and measures necessary and sufficient? Are the perspectives and measures necessary and sufficient? How do cultural and institutional factors affect the BSC/IS? How do cultural and institutional factors affect the BSC/IS? Can we create BSCs at the level of the individual employee? Can we create BSCs at the level of the individual employee? What are the experiences of your companies? What are the experiences of your companies? What Else?

52. 52 And Now… Time for you to create a BSC for the IS function of a company with which you are familiar Time for you to create a BSC for the IS function of a company with which you are familiar Use the blank sheet available from the course web page – and when you are done, email it to me. Use the blank sheet available from the course web page – and when you are done, email it to me. Feel free to adapt the blank sheet to your own needs, design, etc. Feel free to adapt the blank sheet to your own needs, design, etc.

53. 53 References Reich, B. & Benbasat, I. (2000) Factors that influence the social dimention of alignment between business and information technology objectives, MIS Quarterly, 24, 1, 81-113. Reich, B. & Benbasat, I. (2000) Factors that influence the social dimention of alignment between business and information technology objectives, MIS Quarterly, 24, 1, 81-113. Henderson, J.C. & Venkatraman, N. (1993) Strategic Alignment: Leveraging Information Technology for Transforming Organizations, IBM Systems Journal, 32, 1, 4-16. Henderson, J.C. & Venkatraman, N. (1993) Strategic Alignment: Leveraging Information Technology for Transforming Organizations, IBM Systems Journal, 32, 1, 4-16. Chan, Y.E. (2002) Why Haven ’ t We Mastered Alignment? The Importance of the Information Organizational Structure, MIS Quarterly Executive, 2, 1, 97-112. Chan, Y.E. (2002) Why Haven ’ t We Mastered Alignment? The Importance of the Information Organizational Structure, MIS Quarterly Executive, 2, 1, 97-112. Martinsons, M.G., Davison, R.M. and Tse, D. (1999) A Foundation for the Strategic Management of Information Systems, Decision Support Systems, 25, 71-88. Martinsons, M.G., Davison, R.M. and Tse, D. (1999) A Foundation for the Strategic Management of Information Systems, Decision Support Systems, 25, 71-88. Kaplan, R. and Norton, D. (1992) The balanced scorecard ‑ measures that drive performance, Harvard Business Review, 70, 1, 71 ‑ 79. Kaplan, R. and Norton, D. (1992) The balanced scorecard ‑ measures that drive performance, Harvard Business Review, 70, 1, 71 ‑ 79. Kaplan, R. and Norton, D. (1993) Putting the Balanced Scorecard to Work, Harvard Business Review, 71, 5, 134 ‑ 142. Kaplan, R. and Norton, D. (1993) Putting the Balanced Scorecard to Work, Harvard Business Review, 71, 5, 134 ‑ 142. Kaplan, R. and Norton, D. (1996) Using the Balanced Scorecard as a Strategic Management System, Harvard Business Review, 74, 1, 75 ‑ 85. Kaplan, R. and Norton, D. (1996) Using the Balanced Scorecard as a Strategic Management System, Harvard Business Review, 74, 1, 75 ‑ 85. Kaplan, R. and Norton, D. (1996) The Balanced Scorecard: Translating Strategy into Action, Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Kaplan, R. and Norton, D. (1996) The Balanced Scorecard: Translating Strategy into Action, Boston: Harvard Business School Press. McFarlan, F.W., McKenney, J.L., Pyburn, P. (1983) Information Archipelago: Plotting a Course, Harvard Business Review, 61, 1, 145-156. McFarlan, F.W., McKenney, J.L., Pyburn, P. (1983) Information Archipelago: Plotting a Course, Harvard Business Review, 61, 1, 145-156. Davis, G.B. and Davis, M. (1984) Management Information Systems, McGraw Hill. Davis, G.B. and Davis, M. (1984) Management Information Systems, McGraw Hill.