1. The Human Body in Health and Disease Chapter 2

2. STRUCTURES OF THE BODY Body anatomy: made up of increasing larger and more complex structural units Body anatomy: made up of increasing larger and more complex structural units Cells  tissues  organs  the body systems Cells  tissues  organs  the body systems

3. Body Systems Skeletal Skeletal Muscular Muscular Cardiovascular Cardiovascular Lymphatic Lymphatic Immune Immune Respiratory Respiratory Digestive Digestive Urinary Urinary Nervous Nervous Special Senses Special Senses Integumentary Integumentary Endocrine Endocrine Reproductive Reproductive

4. CELLS The basic structural and functional units of the body The basic structural and functional units of the body They specialize and group together to form tissues and organs They specialize and group together to form tissues and organs Cytology – the study of the anatomy, physiology, pathology and chemistry of the cell Cytology – the study of the anatomy, physiology, pathology and chemistry of the cell

5. The Structure of Cells Cell Membrane – the tissue that surrounds and protects the contents of the cell by separating them from its external environment Cell Membrane – the tissue that surrounds and protects the contents of the cell by separating them from its external environment Cytoplasm – material within the cell membrane that is not part of the nucleus Cytoplasm – material within the cell membrane that is not part of the nucleus Nucleus – surrounded by a nuclear membrane; a structure within the cell that has two important fxns: Nucleus – surrounded by a nuclear membrane; a structure within the cell that has two important fxns: Controls the activities of the cell Controls the activities of the cell Helps the cell divide Helps the cell divide

6. Stem Cells Unspecialized cells that are able to renew themselves for long pds of x by cell division Unspecialized cells that are able to renew themselves for long pds of x by cell division In contrast to other cell types that have a specialized role and die after a determined lifespan In contrast to other cell types that have a specialized role and die after a determined lifespan Under certain conditions stem cells can be transformed into cells with special fxns such as the cells of the heart m that make the heartbeat possible or the specialized cells of the pancreas that are capable of producing insulin Under certain conditions stem cells can be transformed into cells with special fxns such as the cells of the heart m that make the heartbeat possible or the specialized cells of the pancreas that are capable of producing insulin

7. Adult Stem Cells Adult Stem Cells Somatic Stem Cells; undifferentiated (no special fxn) cells found among differentiated (have a specialized fxn) cells in a tissue or organ Somatic Stem Cells; undifferentiated (no special fxn) cells found among differentiated (have a specialized fxn) cells in a tissue or organ Maintain and repair the tissue in which they are found Maintain and repair the tissue in which they are found Have the potential to be transplanted from one individual to another Have the potential to be transplanted from one individual to another Found in donor’s bone marrow Found in donor’s bone marrow Has to be an excellent match between donor and recipient Has to be an excellent match between donor and recipient Graft versus host disease Graft versus host disease

8. Embryonic Stem Cells Embryonic Stem Cells Undifferentiated! Unlike an specific adult cell; have the ability to form ANY adult cell!!! Undifferentiated! Unlike an specific adult cell; have the ability to form ANY adult cell!!! Grow rapidly and indefinitely in a lab and could potentially provide a source for adult m, liver, bone, or blood cells Grow rapidly and indefinitely in a lab and could potentially provide a source for adult m, liver, bone, or blood cells They are more primitive than adult stem cells, therefore a perfect match is not required They are more primitive than adult stem cells, therefore a perfect match is not required Found in cord blood in the umbilical cord and placenta Found in cord blood in the umbilical cord and placenta Can also be obtained from surplus embryos produced by in vitro (test tube) fertilization Can also be obtained from surplus embryos produced by in vitro (test tube) fertilization

9. GENETICS Gene – a fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity Control hereditary disorders and all physical traits such as hair, skin and eye color Genetics – the study of how genes transfer from parent to child(ren) and the role of genes in health and disease

10. Each newly formed individual receives two genes of each genetic trait: one from the father, one from the mother Dominant Gene – the offspring will inherit that genetic condition A recessive gene inherited from both parents means the offspring will have that condition A recessive gene from only one parent, and a normal gene from the other parent, the offspring will not have the condition Dominant and Recessive Genes

11. Dominant Gene: ex – freckles are a dominant trait Recessive sickle cell + recessive sickle cell = child WILL HAVE sickle cell Recessive sickle cell + normal cell = child WILL NOT HAVE sickle cell, but will carry the trait

12. The Human Genome Genome – the complete set of genetic information of an individual The Human Genome Project was formed to study this genetic code in all people and throughout the world Found that over 99% of the genetic code is the same among human beings throughout the world

13. Chromosomes Chromosomes – the genetic structures located within the nucleus of each cell Made up of DNA molecules that contain the body’s genes – helps keel a lg amount of info neat, organized, and compact

14. Somatic Cell – any cell in the body other than gametes (sex cells) – 46 chromosomes arranged into 23 pairs; 22 identical pairs and one other… either XX or XY (fem/male) Sex Cell – gamete; only type of cell that does not contain 46 chromosomes – each ovum (egg) or sperm has a single set of 23 chromosomes… in a female, one will be an X and in a male one will be an X or Y; the X or Y from the father determines the sex of the child

15. DNA DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid; the basic structure of the DNA molecule Packaged on a chromosome as 2 spiraling strands that twist together to form a double helix; looks like a spiral staircase and consists of 2 strands twisted together Found in the nucleus of every cell except RBCs DNA is different for every individual and no two patterns are the same… EXCEPT??? Identical TWINS! (formed from 1 fertilized egg that divides) identical genetic make up, but individual finger prints and other characteristics

17. Genetic Mutation Genetic mutation – a change in the sequence of a DNA molecule (radiation or environmental pollution may be a cause) Somatic cell mutation – a change within the cells of the body; affect the individual but cannot be transmitted to the next generation Gametic cell mutation – a change within the genes in a gamete that can be transmitted by parent to his/her child Genetic Engineering – manipulating or splicing of genes for scientific or medical purposes

18. Genetic Disorders Genetic Disorder – hereditary disorder; a pathological condition caused by an absent or defective gene Cystic Fibrosis (CF) – a genetic disorder that is present at birth and affects both the respiratory and digestive systems Down Symdrome (DS) – a genetic variation that is associated with characteristic facial appearance, leaning disabilities, and physical abnormalities Hemophilia – a group of hereditary disorders in which a blood-clotting factor is missing

19. Huntington’s Disease (HD) – a genetic disorder that is passed from parent to child Each child has a 50-50 chance of inheriting the defective gene (causes nerve degeneration = uncontrolled movements and the loss of some mental abilities) Muscular Dystrophy – the term used to describe a group of genetic diseases that are characterized by progressive weakness and degeneration of the skeletal mm that control movement Phenylketonuria – PKU; a genetic disorder in which the essential digestive enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase is missing Tay-Sachs Disease – a fatal genetic disorder in which harmful quantities of a fatty substance build up in tissues and nerve cells in the brain

20. TISSUES Tissue – a group or layer of similarly specialized cells that join together to perform certain specific functions Tissue – a group or layer of similarly specialized cells that join together to perform certain specific functions 4 Types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve 4 Types: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve Histology – the study of the structure, composition, and function of tissues Histology – the study of the structure, composition, and function of tissues Histologist – a specialist in the study of the organization of tissues at all levels Histologist – a specialist in the study of the organization of tissues at all levels

21. Epithelial Tissues Epithelial Tissues – form a protective covering for all of the internal and external surfaces of the body Epithelial Tissues – form a protective covering for all of the internal and external surfaces of the body Epithelium – the specialized epithelial tissue that forms the epidermis of the skin and the surface layer of mucous membranes Epithelium – the specialized epithelial tissue that forms the epidermis of the skin and the surface layer of mucous membranes Endothelium – the specialized epithelial tissue that lines the blood and lymph vessels, body cavities, glands and organs Endothelium – the specialized epithelial tissue that lines the blood and lymph vessels, body cavities, glands and organs

22. Connective Tissues Connective Tissues – support and connect organs and other body tissues. 4 Kinds: Connective Tissues – support and connect organs and other body tissues. 4 Kinds: Dense Connective Tissues – bone and cartilage, form joints and the framework of the body Dense Connective Tissues – bone and cartilage, form joints and the framework of the body Adipose Tissue – fat; provides protection, padding, insulation, and support Adipose Tissue – fat; provides protection, padding, insulation, and support Loose Connective Tissue – surrounds various organs and supports both nerve cells and blood vessels Loose Connective Tissue – surrounds various organs and supports both nerve cells and blood vessels Liquid Connective Tissues – blood and lymph Liquid Connective Tissues – blood and lymph

23. Muscle Tissue Muscle Tissue – contains cells with the specialized ability to contract and relax Muscle Tissue – contains cells with the specialized ability to contract and relax

24. Nerve Tissue Nerve Tissue – contains cells with the specialized ability to react to stimuli and to conduct electrical impulses Nerve Tissue – contains cells with the specialized ability to react to stimuli and to conduct electrical impulses

25. Pathology of Tissue Formation Frequently due to unknown causes, can occur before birth as the tissues are forming, or appear later in life Frequently due to unknown causes, can occur before birth as the tissues are forming, or appear later in life Incomplete Tissue Formation Incomplete Tissue Formation Aplsia – the defective development, or the congenital absence of an organ or tissue (a- without, -plasia formation) Aplsia – the defective development, or the congenital absence of an organ or tissue (a- without, -plasia formation) Hypoplasia – the incomplete development of an organ or tissue usually die to a deficiency in the number of cells (hypo- low) Hypoplasia – the incomplete development of an organ or tissue usually die to a deficiency in the number of cells (hypo- low)

26. Abnormal Tissue Formation Abnormal Tissue Formation Anaplasia – a change in the structure of cells and in their orientation to each other (ana- excessive)… characteristic of cancer Anaplasia – a change in the structure of cells and in their orientation to each other (ana- excessive)… characteristic of cancer Dysplasia – an abnormal development of growth or cells, tissues, or organs (dys- bad) Dysplasia – an abnormal development of growth or cells, tissues, or organs (dys- bad) Hyperplasia – the enlargement of an organ or tissue because of an abnormal increase in the number of cells in the tissues Hyperplasia – the enlargement of an organ or tissue because of an abnormal increase in the number of cells in the tissues Hypertrophy – a general increase in the bulk of a body part or organ that is due to an increase in the size but not in the number of cells in the tissues (-trophy development) Hypertrophy – a general increase in the bulk of a body part or organ that is due to an increase in the size but not in the number of cells in the tissues (-trophy development)

27. GLANDS

28. Gland – a group if specialized epithelial cells that are capable of producing secretions Gland – a group if specialized epithelial cells that are capable of producing secretions Exocrine Glands – secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body Exocrine Glands – secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body Endocrine Glands – shave no ducts; instead, release hormones into the bloodstream Endocrine Glands – shave no ducts; instead, release hormones into the bloodstream

29. Pathology and Procedures of the Glands Adenitis – inflammation of a gland (aden/o- gland) Adenitis – inflammation of a gland (aden/o- gland) Adenocarcinoma – a malignant tumor that originates in glandular tissue Adenocarcinoma – a malignant tumor that originates in glandular tissue Adenoma – a benign tumor that arises in, or resembles, glandular tissue Adenoma – a benign tumor that arises in, or resembles, glandular tissue Adenomalacia – the abnormal softening of a gland Adenomalacia – the abnormal softening of a gland Adenosis – any disease condition of a gland Adenosis – any disease condition of a gland Adenosclerosis – the abnormal hardening of a gland Adenosclerosis – the abnormal hardening of a gland Adenectomy – the surgical removal of a gland Adenectomy – the surgical removal of a gland

30. BODY SYSTEMS AND RELATED ORGANS

31. A body organ is a somewhat independent part of the body that performs a specific function A body organ is a somewhat independent part of the body that performs a specific function

32. PATHOLOGY

33. Pathology – the study of the nature and cause of disease that involves changes in structure and function Pathology – the study of the nature and cause of disease that involves changes in structure and function Pathologist – specializes in the laboratory analysis of tissue samples to confirm or establish a diagnosis Pathologist – specializes in the laboratory analysis of tissue samples to confirm or establish a diagnosis Can be removed in biopsies, during operations, or in postmortem exams Can be removed in biopsies, during operations, or in postmortem exams Etiology – the study of the cause of disease Etiology – the study of the cause of disease

34. Disease Transmission A pathogen is a disease-producing microorganism A pathogen is a disease-producing microorganism Transmission is the spread of disease Transmission is the spread of disease Contamination means that a pathology is possibly present Contamination means that a pathology is possibly present Communicable Disease – contagious disease; any condition that is transmitted from one person to another either by direct or indirect contact with a contaminated object Communicable Disease – contagious disease; any condition that is transmitted from one person to another either by direct or indirect contact with a contaminated object

35. Indirect Contact Transmission – refers to situations in which a susceptible person is infected by contact with a contaminated surface Indirect Contact Transmission – refers to situations in which a susceptible person is infected by contact with a contaminated surface Bloodborne Transmission – the spread of disease through contact with blood or other body fluids that are contaminated with blood (HIV, STDs, HepB) Bloodborne Transmission – the spread of disease through contact with blood or other body fluids that are contaminated with blood (HIV, STDs, HepB) Airborne Transmission – occurs through contact with contaminated respiratory droplets spread by a cough or sneeze Airborne Transmission – occurs through contact with contaminated respiratory droplets spread by a cough or sneeze

36. Food-borne and Waterborne Transmission – fecal-oral transmission; caused by eating or drinking contaminated food or water that has not been properly treated to remove contamination or kill pathogens that are present Food-borne and Waterborne Transmission – fecal-oral transmission; caused by eating or drinking contaminated food or water that has not been properly treated to remove contamination or kill pathogens that are present Vector-borne Transmission – is the spread of a certain disease due to the bite of a vector Vector-borne Transmission – is the spread of a certain disease due to the bite of a vector Flies, mites, fleas, ticks, rats and dogs Flies, mites, fleas, ticks, rats and dogs

37. Outbreaks of Diseases Epidemilogist – a specialist in the study of outbreaks of disease within a population Epidemilogist – a specialist in the study of outbreaks of disease within a population Endemic – the ongoing presence of a disease within a population, group or area Endemic – the ongoing presence of a disease within a population, group or area Epidemic – is a sudden and wide-spread outbreak of disease within a specific population, group or area Epidemic – is a sudden and wide-spread outbreak of disease within a specific population, group or area Pandemic – an outbreak of a disease ocurring over a large geographic area, possibly world wide Pandemic – an outbreak of a disease ocurring over a large geographic area, possibly world wide

38. Types of Disease Functional Disorder – produces symptoms for which no physiological or anatomical cause can be identified (panic attack) Functional Disorder – produces symptoms for which no physiological or anatomical cause can be identified (panic attack) Iatrogenic Disease – an unfavorable response due to prescribed medical tx (burns from radiation tx) Iatrogenic Disease – an unfavorable response due to prescribed medical tx (burns from radiation tx) Idiopathic Disorder – illness without known cause Idiopathic Disorder – illness without known cause

39. Nosocomial Infection – a disease acquired in the hospital or clinic setting (MRSA) Nosocomial Infection – a disease acquired in the hospital or clinic setting (MRSA) Organic Disorder – produces symptoms caused by detectable physical changes in the body (chickenpox) Organic Disorder – produces symptoms caused by detectable physical changes in the body (chickenpox)

40. Anatomic Reference Systems