1. Chapter 10 Globalizing Issues

2. Transnational Issues: Characteristics Increased interconnection and interdependence creates new concerns at the international level New opportunities arise, but also new risks, accelerated by changes in communications and technology

3. Transnational Issues: Characteristics More actors participate: states, intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), multinational corporations (MNCs), transnational movements, individuals; possible power shift away from states Issues interlinked between local, state, and international levels Global identities, interests, and actions now involved

4. Health and Disease: Protecting Life in the Commons Ancient international problem: bubonic plague, smallpox, measles, malaria World Health Organization campaigns against smallpox, malaria, polio in twentieth century Twenty-first century mobility results in spread of AIDS, dengue fever, cholera, typhoid, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Avian flu, Ebola virus

5. Health Health increasingly recognized as a development issue; now also seen by some as human rights issue Three Millennial Development Goals (MDGs) devoted to health, including reducing infant mortality and increasing maternal health

6. Health Movement of people from countryside to urban areas, from one urban area to another, then across national boundaries quickens the spread of many infectious diseases Problems of ensuring pharmaceutical quality and preventing risky behaviors

7. Health: A Theoretical Perspective Functionalist issue: high levels of agreement of need to address problem; need for technical experts Different emphases on way to address issue  Liberals: international responsibility  Realists: state responsibility  Radicals: illustrates differences between rich and poor individuals and states; condemn multinational corporations’ concern for profits over saving lives

8. The Environment: Protecting Space in the Commons Two concepts:  Collective goods: need to achieve shared benefits by overcoming conflicting interests; Hardin’s concept of the commons  Sustainability: policies that promote change that neither damages the environment nor depletes finite resources  Tragedy of the Commons

9. Population Growth Rates Historic fear of Malthusian dilemma: population increase outstrips food supply Theory did not understand demographic transition:  Population did not increase unchecked  Technology: increased food yields; birth control

10. Politics of Population Numbers Population increase is not uniformly distributed: poorer countries have higher growth rates Population growth and economic development mean more demand for scarce natural resources High population growth leads to ethical dilemmas: children provide labor and social security net; individual procreation rights As people contend for scarce resources and seek better life, migration or violence may result

11. Managing the Global Commons Problem Rely on group pressures to change the behavior of individuals; works in small groups Increase access to birth control methods when wanted Establish regulations to change behavior Take coercive measures to enforce changes

12. Natural Resource Issues Problem: increasing demand and declining resources Example: fresh water  Only 3 percent of earth’s water is fresh; one third less than 1970  Agriculture uses two thirds; industry uses one quarter; humans use less than one tenth

13. Natural Resource Issues Example: fresh water  Estimated 2030: half of people will face moderate to severe water shortage  Cases: United States, Mexico and Colorado River; West Bank (Israel, Jordan); Central Asia (Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan); northern China

14. Pollution and Development Externalities: costly unintended consequences Can be managed if international cooperation; example: Montreal Protocol (1985) ozone depletion due to use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):  States agreed to phase out use of chemicals  Developed states agreed to finance costs of compliance  Multinational corporations (MNCs) eventually supported CFC prohibition

15. Climate Change Questions Is the climate actually warming? Causes? If it is, what effects will be felt? When? Are voluntary restraints sufficient? How can states reduce use of fossil fuels and still grow economically? What costs should the developed countries pay? What costs should the developing countries bear?

16. Climate Change: Recent Findings US National Academy of Sciences (2012): average global temperatures since 1880rose 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit from human activity, mostly in last three decades NASA (2016): multiple studies indicate that over 97% of publishing climate scientists agree that human activity is the cause UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2013): human activity more than 95 percent likely to be responsible; two greenhouse gases—carbon dioxide and methane—retain heat in the atmosphere and have experienced sharp increases after 12,000 years relative consistency

17. Kyoto Protocol Provisions Developed states agree to reduce emissions Less developed states are not obligated Provides flexible mechanisms to meet goals  Trading of emissions shares  Credits earned from carbon sinks  Credit for aiding other states in meeting standards

18. Kyoto Protocol and the United States Protocol became operational in 2005 United States refused to join; objections  Reducing emissions is too costly for United States  United States is uniquely dependent on fossil fuel  Less developed states have unfair competitive advantage since they are not obligated to make changes  Markets are best way encourage change

19. Paris Agreement on Climate Change December 2015 To replace Kyoto Protocol Included many more states (including most states) 177 states signed; not yet active 15 states have ratified Includes targets for all participants

20. Environmental Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) in Action Act as international critic; use media for publicity Work through intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) for change Monitor and enforce regulations Part of transnational community of experts Influence policies in states

21. Human Rights: Protecting Human Dignity Basic Concepts  First-generation rights: political and civil rights; rights that states cannot take away (free speech, assembly)  Second-generation rights: economic and social rights; rights that states should provide (health care, jobs)  Third-generation rights: rights of specific groups, minorities, women, children

22. An International Human Rights Regime? Regime Defined: rules, norms, principles, and procedures that emerge from high level cooperation; convergence actors’ expectations; guide state actions Human rights regime:  Web of IGOs and NGOs at international and regional levels  Based on core principles  Engaged in setting rules, norms, and procedures

23. Debates over Human Rights Can human rights principles survive national security threats? Do human rights apply to all in every state or region? Are they universal? Are some rights culturally relative?

24. Debates over Human Rights Some Asian writers argue that rights are culturally determined  Rights of community are more important than rights of the individual

25. What Can the International Community Do? Set human rights standards (United Nations) Monitor standards, establish complaint procedures, compile reports on state behavior, investigate alleged violations, promote education about human rights (United Nations, NGOs) Monitor elections; provide focal point via UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Enforce standards through embargoes, sanctions, armed force (United Nations, states)

26. Enforcement Problems State’s signature on treaties is no guarantee of willingness or ability to enforce treaty provisions Monitoring via self-reporting presumes willingness to comply and be transparent Economic embargoes may not achieve human rights policy change and may hurt those whom embargoes are intended to help Military action may cause unintended casualties

27. Key Precedents of the Late Twentieth Century Some kinds of international action now acceptable Some in international community now agree it has responsibility or obligation to protect individuals Example: dealing with genocide in 1970s (Cambodia); 1990s (Rwanda, Yugoslavia); 2000s (Darfur) But problem of building international will to act remains

28. Responses of Theories to Genocide Realists: intervene only if conflict affects national interests  Kissinger: wise policy maker not moved by sentiment or personal welfare alone, but by national interest calculations Liberals: duty to intervene in blatant cases Radicals: intervention acceptable, but root cause is unfair economic system

29. Key Role of Human Rights NGOs Constructivists: spread ideas Publicize issues and abuses Pressure states (offenders and enforcers) Lobby IGOs capable of taking action Quickly disseminate information via Internet Examples: Amnesty International, International Committee of the Red Cross, Human Rights Watch

30. Development of Women’s Rights Post–World War II emphasis on political and civil rights (firstgeneration) 1960s–1970s: increasing concern for economic rights (second generation)  Women in Development movement 1990s: global conferences on women include gender- based violence (third generation)  Includes both public and private sphere rights

31. Women’s Rights: From the Public to the Private Sphere “The human rights of women and of the girl-child are an inalienable, integral, and indivisible part of human rights” (Vienna Declaration, 1993) Political, civil, economic, and social rights in public sphere

32. Women’s Rights: From the Public to the Private Sphere Gender-based violence in private sphere  Domestic violence, rape (wartime and peacetime), trafficking  1998 ruling from Rwanda tribunal that rape is not only a crime against humanity but also genocide

33. Transnational Crime Human Trafficking: criminal profit motive  Prohibited but persists due to government corruption, lax border controls, desire to keep labor costs low, poverty, high profitability of sex trade  Est. 600,000–1.75 million women, girls, and boys trafficked annually for sex trade

34. Transnational Crime Narcotrafficking: profits for terrorists  Profits recycled into arms purchases, intelligence, and bribes for terrorist organizations  Due to low cost of shipping, cultivation in one region easily replaced in another region if crops eradicated

35. Impacts of Transnational Issues On international bargaining:  More policy trade-offs and greater complexity On international conflict:  May increase at international and substate levels as issues are themselves sources of conflict

36. Impacts of Transnational Issues On state sovereignty:  Traditional notion challenged; need reconceptualization On study of international relations:  Core assumptions of theories jeopardized  Theories modified and broadened

37. Transnational Issues: Theoretical Perspectives Realists: state primacy not in jeopardy, though concept of security is broadened Liberals: transnational issues compatible with liberal views of human security and multiple actors Radicals: many globalizing issues confirm primacy of economic issues and explain international stratification Constructivists: transnational issues demonstrate changing discourse; both material factors and ideas shape debate

38. Do Globalizing Issues Lead to Global Governance? Global governance defined:  Various structures and processes through which actors coordinate interests and needs even in the absence of unifying political authority Yes: moving to global civil society; need for governance with globalization No: not possible (realist) and not desirable because hegemonic domination (radical)