1. Venezuela: Cycles of Political Change Maxwell A. Cameron Poli 332

2. Periods and sub-periods 1.Independence and anarchy (1810-1830) 2.Repressive oligarchic state (1830-1935) 3.The rise of radical populism (1935-1958) 4.Pact of Punto Fijo (1958-1998) – includes a populist phase 1958-1989 and neoliberal phase 1989-1998 5.Venezuela’s left turn (1998-present)

3. 1. Independence and anarchy (1810-1830) Venezuela not a major colonial centre Type of agriculture: large landowners, slaves on plantations, no sedentary peasantry Ethnicity: Half of the population was mixed race –pardo, mestizo or mulato. Venezuelan pardo (descended from slaves) were discriminated against by the creoles or the peninsulares. Small indigenous pop. Extractivist (oil) after 1920 (boom and bust economy).

4. Independence After Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, exiled Venezuelans organized a political revolution in April 1810. Elites did not want rebellion and disorder (perception of threat from slave and pardo uprising) Royalist counter-revolution in 1812 put down by Bolivar, followed by civil war 1813-14

5. Anarchy Independence was violent (40% pop dies) followed by anarchy & caudillo rule, and a tendency to civil war, that continued throughout the 19 th Century. Independence was organized and carried out by creole elites. “The people, the Venezuelans, did not understand or desire Independence. It had to be imposed on them” (Moron, Guillermo) Early independence: 1811, but republic not consolidated until 1830 (when Republic of Venezuela separated from Gran Colombia) A decade of caudillismo (often with regional base in coast or with ranchers or llaneros in the plains) before political order restored.

6. Llaneros Llanero fought for more concrete goals: they were expecting to have gains from the spoils of war. They lived off the land and received payment from the property confiscated from battles. These nomadic communities in the plains tended to follow the leadership of caudillos. They became informal personal armies. With the involvement of llaneros, slaves and pardos from the coastal and central mountain regions in the war, Venezuelan independence movement ceased to be a mere political alignment and became into a decade of civil war. The end was in 1823.

8. Símon Bolívar’s Gran Colombia Símon Bolívar was the greatest independence leader He promulgated the repressive decree of “War to the Death” against Spanish or royalist creoles. By the end of 1823 Venezuela free of Spanish control Since the cost of attempting against Bolivar was very high for any caudillo, moves against him were taken with great caution In 1819 Congress of Angostura named Bolivar president. Bolivar then started military campaigns to liberate northern south America from Spanish rule. Venezuelans did not want to be governed from Bogota, so Gran Colombia resisted.

9. 2. Repressive Oligarchic State (1830- 1935) Since the first Republican Constitution of 1830, Venezuelan history has been marked by popular unrest, revolution, and dictatorship Rule of strongmen continued into mid-20 th Century. The strong men of Venezuela were: Bolivar, Paez, Monagas, Blanco. Only Perez Jimenez established stable domination “Political democracy has been attained in Venezuela only in the written constitutions (1858, 1864) but political democracy has never worked, since revolution, war and dictatorship have held sway” (Guillermo Moron)

10. Conservative Rule (1830 to 1848) From 1830 to 1848: Conservative Oligarchy. The governments were constitutional, and the country began a period of progress. Under the Constitution of 1830 only free men citizens of Venezuela, and slavery continued in spite of Bolivar’s opposition Wars cause displacement and unrest The economy was shaky, large public debt due to independence struggle Live stock & tobacco main source of revenue

11. 19 th Century Political Parties By 1840 Venezuela had two main parties, Conservative and Liberal, but a stable party system was never established. The parties represented power-seeking factions rather than opposed political ideologies (Antonio Leocadio Guzman the Liberal founder followed a conservative philosophy, while Fermin Toro the great conservative figure, had a liberal outlook). In 1842 Venezuela held free elections for the first time. The Conservatives won and held power from 1843-1848. Riots, instability, exile of leaders continues, leading to dictatorship and civil war.

12. Federal Revolution (1859-1863) The Federal Revolution established a federal Constitution and democratic reforms. The struggle pitted ambitious caudillos and politicians against each other, using popular revolt to gain power for their own use. The underlying class conflict was between landowners and merchants opposed by landless rural and urban workers The cause of Federalism was associated with the Liberals and centralism with Conservatives

13. Aftermath The Federal War swept brought to power representatives of the lowest ranks of the people (illiterates, those excluded from citizenship) It also inaugurated another period of anarchy, militarism, violence, and economic ruin Many peasants conscripted into military Remainder of 19 th century Venezuela had a mix civilian and military leaders, some elected others take power by force From 1899 to 1935, two men dominated government by dictatorial means: Cipriano Castro (1899-1908) and Juan Vicente Gómez (1908-1935)

14. Juan Vicente Gómez (1908-1935) The longest and cruelest in Venezuela’s history (1908- 1935). However, with the dictatorships of Castro and Gomez the epoch of the caudillos came to an end. Despite the brutal suppression of dissent, disagreement and discussion, Vicente Gómez brought Venezuela into the modern world Rebellions declined, law and order restored His political “doctrine” was one of force: strongly anti- Communist No interest in promoting citizenship He had an army, organized and equipped with the best modern weapons, that guaranteed civil order and efficiently suppressed the traditional forms of challenge to reigning caudillo.

15. The Impact of Oil Period of “order and progress” (or perhaps “peace and petroleum”) Oil boom began after the Gómez system become well established. From 1920-25 oil exports go from 2-42%, and 91% by 1935 State captures royalties Expanded Caracas bureaucracy dedicated to public works and its own salaries The military gained in status and equipment, professionalization of army Growth of infrastructure: roads, housing, public services, ports Rising middle class

16. Oil Brings Rapid Change “More rapid structural changes occurred in Venezuela between 1920 and 1960 than had occurred between 1780-1920. The generations active between 20-60 experienced a compression of historical time and acceleration of cause and effect. From a primitive, rural, isolated, agricultural dependency on North Atlantic markets, Venezuela became complex, sophisticated, urbanized, industrializing, extractive, mining society closely attached to the ebb and flow of North Atlantic politics and Economics.”—John Lombardi

17. 3. The Rise of Radical Populism in post-Gómez era (1935-1958) Rapid growth produced a reinforcing pressure on the national government to provide more services, public works and amenities to the population of the capital. Foreign investment increases – not ISI Despite the oil bonanza, the country was not prepared to extract long-term benefits. All social strata rushed to improve the surface features of their lives. There was space to create their own rural organization, labor unions, and mass political parties.

18. Rómulo Betancourt and the generation of the 1928 found Acción Democrática (Democratic Action Party, AD) in 1941. AD was a typical populist party with a base among middle sectors, the emerging organized labor movement, and rural workers. AD competed with communist leaders for control over oil and urban workers. AD gains control of the labor movement in 1944. Thus, labor unions that emerged under paternalistic and repressive Gomez, became adjuncts of AD. Betancourt and Acción Democrática

19. Radical Populism in Countryside Populism tends to be more radical when it has a rural basis. 4.4% of rural property owners held 78% of land, (data from 1937) 95% of owners shared the remaining 22%. 90% of rural people was classified as peasants working on the land of others. Control over the countryside maintained through repression. AD saw the opportunity to create rural organizations.

20. AD enters power with the military In 1945 the Unión Patriótica Militar (UPM) seizes power led by Marcos Perez Jimenes They were impatient with the pace of modernization and professionalization in the armed forces. Wanted economic development and rapid modernization. AD agrees to participate; Betancourt made provisional president Seek to promote industrial modernization, national control over oil, improvements in countryside. Yet no ISI, and development of entrepreneurial elite lags Rural mobilization alienates military

21. AD wanted to organize worker and peasants. This was seen as a way to gain and broaden legitimacy. The military feared class polarization AD wanted to subordinate military to an “apolitical role”, while UPM wanted a role in national development AD made agrarian reform and land distribution a major priority, while officers preferred large- scale agricultural development AS differed on the extent on distribution of wealth and power The “Trienio” (1945-1948)

22. After the “Trienio” Betancourt replaced by another president, who was killed in an kidnapping attempt. A new junta forms in 1950 until elections were held in 1952 for a new Constituent Assembly In 1952 election AD outlawed URD and COPEI (Christian Democrats, formed in 1946 by Rafael Caldera) continued to function URD won the election of 1952. Perez Jimenez became President. Many URD and COPEI leaders went into exile and abandoned any hope to return to democracy.

23. Pérez establishes dictatorship; labor and peasants unions abolished Pérez calls plebiscite on continuing his dictatorship and wins. New clandestine coalition of civilians, military officers, and urban sectors organize to force Pérez’s resignation and departure for the country. Discontent builds within the military. Officers conscious of disaffection of other segments of society. The high command was divided. Those who didn’t support Pérez planned a movement for January 1, but failed. La Junta patriotica, organized (clandestinely) and along with civilian forces were ready to act: Revolution 1958 The urban masses of Caracas also joined and by January 21, 22 Pérez fled The Pérez Jiménez Dictatorship

24. Punto Fijo Pact was a power-sharing agreement between AD, COPEI, UDP. Labor (CTV) and business (FEDECAMARAS) included. Excluded PCV – which leads to guerrilla movement. Called a “partyarchy”: parties become clientelistic machines Major bonanza from OPEC in 1970s; excess led to corruption Neoliberal moment: 1983 “Viernes negro”, the President Luis Herrera Campins devaluated the bolivar, and started a material and ideological crisis. February 1989 Jaime Lusinchi passed presidency to Carlos Andres Perez (CAP). He announced the negotiation of a “package of structural reforms” with the IFM. Called the “Gran Viraje” 4. Pact of Punto Fijo (1958-1998)

25. Caracazo In February the Caracazo took place. Increase in price of gas, public transportation, and end to discounts for students caused lootings all over the country. The army was called to control the uprising. Death people: estimated 1500 + First anti-neoliberal protest Followed by coup by Hugo Chávez. The plotters achieved objective in almost every part of the country, but the didn’t get to catch Perez or provoke a civil uprising which was considered necessary. Defeat transform in victory for the MBR when Chávez asked troops to surrender.

26. Congress impeached CAP, accusing him of corruption President Caldera pardons Chávez Constitutional reform effort fails Massive corruption scandal affects banking sector Chávez runs on Bolivarian (MVR) platform of a constituent assembly to re-write the constitution Wins presidency in 1998 Breakdown of Pact of Punto Fijo

28. 5. Left Turn (1998-present) Another experience with “radical populism” like AD in the 1940s-50s Elected in 1998, calls for constituent assembly New constitution adopted in 1999 – Centralization of power – Referenda and recall – 6 year term + re-election – Military role

29. Social Investments and Participation Misiones, Bolivarian circles Community councils To fund, needed control over PDVSA 2002 coup in response 2006 re-election and promise of 21 st Century socialism Dual power thesis, radicalization 2007 referendum

30. After Chavez: Maduro Chavez re-elected (3 rd time) in 2012, dies March 2013 Maduro elected 2013 Protests in February 2014 (#LaSalida) December 2015 opposition wins control over legislature 2016 seeks recall

31. Lessons Venezuela exemplifies modal pattern 1, the “pacted” variation Key factor: discovery of oil in 1920s (extractivism under repressive oligarchy) Note similarities between AD and MVR

32. Modal Patterns I & II Long period of anarchy Caudillo oligarchy Radical populism Highly repressive authoritarianism Democracy of low intensity citizenship Agro-ex economyISI & IncorpNeoliberalismLeft turns 19 th C to 19301930-1960 1960-1980 Exhaustion of ISI 1980-2000 2000- Short period of anarchy Constitutional oligarchy Moderate populism Less repressive authoritarianism Citizens’ democracy Pattern I Pattern II Pact Breakdown