1. Explaining the Gender Ratio Can Mainstream Theory Explain the Gender Ratio? GenderCrime/Delinquency “Different Exposure” to Mainstream Theory Variables

2. Example of Study: Jensen (2001) GenderDelinquency Deterrence Self-Concept/Sex Roles Antisocial Attitudes Maternal Controls Delinquent Peers

3. And the winners are… Antisocial Attitudes Delinquent Peers Gender Roles Combination of these three “knocks gender out” of the picture –Or, “controlling” for these factors, gender no longer predicts delinquency

4. The “Generalizibility Issue” Patriarchal society  Males also dominate criminological theorizing –Are males biased in their perspective? Traditional image of females as “good” If delinquent or criminal = pathology –Can “male” theories of crime explain female delinquency? –Tests of delinquency based on males? Similar questions have been raised regarding intervention/treatment

5. Factors Unique Female Offending? Gender Roles Physical Maturity –Caspi et al = Delinquent Peers x early Maturity Sexual abuse Self-esteem

6. What is the “evidence?” Many mainstream theories have been tested on females –Most predict female offending as well as male offending –Some (control theories) predict female offending better than male offending Could we still do better? –“Feminist” theories of crime

7. Other Feminist Concerns The Corrections System –1 prison per state –Treatment programs Few available, geared towards male, stereotypical –Still belief in “pathology” Women much more likely to be medicated –Issues of pregnancy and children

8. Life-Course Criminology Age-Crime Relationship Stability and Change in Offending

9. Arrest Rate Age at Arrest 10 20 30 40 50 4000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 Property Crimes, peak age = 16 Violent Crimes, peak age = 18 The Age-Crime Relationship, 1997 (Arrest Rates x Age)

10. Is the Age/Crime Curve Misleading? Data is AGGREGATE –It could hide subgroups of offenders, or “offending trajectories” Data is Cross-Sectional –Doesn’t track stability/change over time Data is OFFICIAL –Cannot tell us about the precursors to official delinquency (childhood antisocial behavior)

11. New and Old Ideas OLD –Crime is the province of adolescents –Theories of delinquency most important New –Why do some age out of crime while others don’t? –Why is criminality so stable over time? Must explain “childhood antisocial behavior” –What causes crime at different stages of life?

12. Antisocial Behavior Is Stable Correlation between past and future criminal behavior ranges from.6 to.7 (very strong) Lee Robins- Studies of cohorts of males –Antisocial Personality as an adult virtually requires history of CASB CASB as early as age 6 related to delinquency More severe behavior has more stability –“Early onset delinquency” powerful indicator of stability

13. But there is CHANGE 1/2 of antisocial children are never arrested The vast majority of delinquents desist as they enter adulthood (mid 20s)

14. Lifecourse Theory Types of Lifecourse Theories (From Cullen and Agnew) 1.Stability Theories (Trait) 2.Stability and Change Theories (Sampson and Laub) 3.Stability or Change Theories (Moffitt)

15. Stability Theories (Trait Theory) Individuals posses a trait that is stable and criminogenic Trait established early in life (before delinquency) Explains stability, but not change (desistance)? If trait is stable, why do people desist from crime? How do Gottfredson and Hirschi explain desistence?

16. Stability AND Change Single Theory to Explain Both Stability and Change Cumulative Continuity as Central Concept –Initial antisocial behavior (regardless of cause) has CONSEQUENCES Knife off opportunity, labeling, attract delinquent peers... “SNOWBALLING” – Because social circumstances “matter” in this theory, change (desistance) is plausible

17. Stability OR Change: Developmental Taxonomies Developmental Taxonomy? –All offenders are not the same, all crime is not caused by the same causal forces –There are at least two unique “offending trajectories” present One groups maybe very stable in their offending Another might might have a brief delinquency career –Kids are on different offending trajectories for different reasons

18. Review Explaining Stability and Change –Why are some kids antisocial early in life? –Why is antisocial behavior so stable? –Why, amidst stability, is there so much change? Three Types of Theories –Continuity –Continuity and Change (Sampson and Laub) –Continuity or Change (Moffitt)

19. Sampson and Laub Why Important Book/Theory –The Data, the timing, etc Reclamation of Hirschi’s 1969 Bond Theory –How “age graded” Causes of delinquency? Causes of crime?

20. S&L II Explaining Stability –Cumulative Continuity Knife off bonds Initial causes still present Explaining Change –Adult Social Bonds QUALITY marriage, QUALITY job Why important?