1. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Environmental Regulations: Hazardous Substances and Wastes Chapter 19 14 th Edition A Study of Interrelationships ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 14 th Edition 1

2. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Outline 19.1 Hazardous and Toxic Materials in Our Environment 19.2 Characterizing Hazardous and Toxic Materials 19.3 Controlling Hazardous Materials and Waste 19.4 Managing Health Risks Associated with Toxic Substances 2

3. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Outline 19.5 How Hazardous Wastes Enter the Environment 19.6 Hazardous-Waste Dumps 19.7 Toxic Chemical Releases 19.8 Hazardous-Waste Management Choices 19.9 International Trade in Hazardous Wastes 19.10 Nuclear Waste Disposal 3

4. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.1 Hazardous and Toxic Materials in Our Environment Our modern technological society makes use of a large number of substances that are hazardous or toxic. At sites around the world, accidental or purposeful releases of hazardous and toxic chemicals are contaminating the land, air, and water. Governments and international agencies set rules and standards to protect the health and safety of people. 4

5. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Life Cycle Of Toxic Substances 5

6. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.2 Characterizing Hazardous and Toxic Materials Terms are incorrectly used interchangeably. Toxic commonly refers to a narrow group of substances that cause human injury or death. Hazardous is a broader term; it refers to all dangerous materials that create a human health or environmental problem. 6

7. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Identifying Hazardous Materials Different organizations and government agencies have differing definitions of what is hazardous. The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) lists several kinds of hazardous materials. 7

8. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. DOT Hazardous Materials List Explosives Materials that cause a rapid release of gas and heat Gases May be flammable, nonflammable, or toxic Flammable liquids Flammable solids Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides Substances that release oxygen that enables or enhances the burning of materials Poisonous (toxic) materials and infectious substances Infectious substances may include organisms or their products that can cause disease Radioactive material Materials that give off ionizing radiation Corrosives Materials that cause damage to human skin Miscellaneous dangerous goods 8

9. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Hazardous Waste—A Special Category of Hazardous Material Hazardous substances or hazardous materials are those that can cause harm to humans or the environment. The EPA defines hazardous materials as having one or more of the following characteristics: Ignitability (Fire hazard) Corrosiveness (Corrodes material) Reactivity (Explosiveness) Toxicity (May release toxins) Some hazardous materials, such as gasoline, fall into several categories. 9

10. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Hazardous Waste—A Special Category of Hazardous Material Hazardous wastes are by-products of industrial, business, or household activities for which there is no immediate use. They must be disposed of in an appropriate manner. There are stringent regulations pertaining to production, storage, and disposal. 10

11. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Common Materials Can Produce Hazardous Wastes 11

12. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.3 Controlling Hazardous Materials and Waste To regulate the use of toxic and hazardous substances and the generation of toxic and hazardous wastes, most countries draw up a list of specific substances that have been scientifically linked to adverse human health or environmental effects. 12

13. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Laws and Regulations “Command and control” methods of governmental regulations began with the development of the EPA and OSHA in 1970. When dealing with past pollution events, governments must assess who will pay for cleanup of hazardous substances or wastes that enter the environment. The Potentially Responsible Party (PRP) will have to pay for dealing with the remediation of the site once hazardous substances/wastes are found in the environment. 13

14. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Voluntary Standards Some voluntary industry standards have been developed and have been incorporated into federal acts. ASTM International Phase I Environmental Site Assessment standard E-1527 is an example of a voluntary standard which involves prior assessment before beginning a project. 14

15. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Voluntary Standards The International Organization for Standardization has a standard for environmental management systems known as ISO 14000. Many organizations and corporations seek ISO 14000 certification as a way to indicate that they are controlling their environmental impact and improving their environmental performance. 15

16. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.4 Managing Health Risks Associated with Toxic Substances Acute vs. Chronic Toxicity Effects of massive doses at once (acute toxicity) and small doses over time (chronic toxicity) differ. Chronic toxicity is much harder to detect as effects may not surface for long periods of time. Synergism Assessing the effects of chemical mixtures is also problematic. Most toxicity studies focus on a single compound. Synergism is the potential of relatively harmless individual compounds to become highly toxic and do great damage when combined. 16

17. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.4 Managing Health Risks Associated with Toxic Substances Persistent pollutants remain in the environment, essentially unchanged, for long periods. Most are human-made. Synthetic chemicals are part of our food, transportation, clothing, building materials, home appliances, medicine, recreational equipment, and many other items. DDT is a persistent pollutant. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are also persistent. 17

18. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.4 Managing Health Risks Associated with Toxic Substances Nonpersistent pollutants do not remain for a long period and are often biodegradable. Many toxic organic materials can be destroyed by decomposer organisms. Organophosphates decompose in several weeks. They do not accumulate in food chain. 18

19. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Setting Exposure Limits Nearly all substances are toxic in sufficiently high doses. The question is, At what dose does a chemical become a hazard? There is no easy way to establish acceptable levels. Several government agencies set limits for different purposes: PEL—Permissible Exposure Limits STELs—Short Term Exposure Limits TWA—Time Weighted Average CL—Ceiling Limit 19

20. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Setting Exposure Limits People can be exposed in three ways: Inhalation Consumption Absorption Typically the regulatory agency will determine the level of exposure at which none of the test animals is affected (threshold level) and then set the exposure level lower to allow for a safety margin. Even when concentrations are set, they may vary considerably from country to country. 20

21. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.5 How Hazardous Wastes Enter the Environment Businesses and industries are highly regulated. Individual citizens are becoming more important as sources of hazardous waste releases. Hazardous wastes enter the environment in several ways: Evaporation Spills, leaks, or purposeful releases Dumping or storing on land Improper labeling and recordkeeping 21

22. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.6 Hazardous-Waste Dumps Prior to RCRA in 1976, hazardous waste was essentially unregulated. Hazardous wastes were simply buried or dumped. Sites were typically located convenient to the industry and were often in environmentally sensitive areas. In North America alone, there are over 25,000 abandoned or uncontrolled sites. 22

23. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Under RCRA, substances are considered toxic or hazardous if they: Cause or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible, illness; or pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwise managed. 23

24. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA): Gave the EPA the responsibility for regulating hazardous waste. Created the “cradle-to-grave” concept of hazardous waste management by regulating generators, transporters, and Treatment Storage and Disposal Facilities (TSDF) as well as underground storage tanks (USTs) and petroleum products. This act also defined toxic and/or hazardous waste by using the terms listed and characteristic waste. 24

25. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. RCRA Requirements 25

26. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Several kinds of waste are specifically exempt by law from RCRA regulation: Household hazardous waste Agricultural waste that is returned to the soil Mining overburden and processing waste Wastes associated with oil and gas exploration and production Ash from burning coal There have been efforts to change the law regarding coal ash, since the failure of a dam in Kingston, Tennessee on 2008 released coal ash sludge that destroyed several homes and polluted local rivers. 26

27. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) In the U.S., the federal government has become the principal participant in the cleanup of hazardous-waste sites. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) was enacted in 1980. This program deals with financing the cleanup of large, uncontrolled hazardous-waste sites and has become known as Superfund. 27

28. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) CERCLA had several key objectives: To set priorities for cleaning up the worst existing sites To make those who created the hazardous waste site (potentially responsible parties) pay for cleanup when possible To set up a $1.6 billion Hazardous Waste Trust Fund (Superfund) to support the identification and cleanup of abandoned hazardous- waste sites To advance scientific and technological capabilities in hazardous waste management, treatment, and disposal 28

29. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) Under CERCLA, over 44,000 sites were evaluated, and about 11,000 were considered serious enough to warrant further investigation. The list of these sites became known as the National Priorities List. The list is still active and the number of sites fluctuates as new sites are added and old sites are deleted as they are cleaned up. 29

30. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) Many companies found it cost-effective to hire lawyers to fight their inclusion in cleanup efforts. About 1100 sites have been cleaned up. Most of the remaining sites are in the process of being cleaned up or are under study about the best way to proceed. $27 billion in total expenditures 30

31. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) The fact that any party could be held responsible for entire site cleanup caused problems. This resulted in two pieces of legislation that provided exemptions to two kinds of parties: The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) The Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act (SBLRBRA) 31

32. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) included several items but one specific provision: If, prior to the purchase of commercial real estate, a person or entity conducted “all appropriate inquiry” using “good and customary practices” they would not be held responsible for the cleanup of any contamination on the property. This was known as the “innocent landowner defense (ILD).” 32

33. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) Because of the provisions of CERCLA, many previously abandoned industrial sites were left vacant. Developers were not willing to accept the liability they would accept if they purchased the land for redevelopment. These abandoned sites became known as brownfields. 33

34. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) The passage of SBLRBRA in 2002 included new language that protected purchasers from liability under CERCLA. Purchasers of commercial real estate must perform an ASTM Phase 1 Environmental Site Assessment (E-1527) prior to purchasing the land. The act also provided funding to conduct site assessment and planning for redevelopment. This act has allowed many remediated Superfund sites to be returned to a useful function rather than to sit vacant. 34

35. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.7 Toxic Chemical Releases The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to- Know Act (EPCRA) was passed in 1986. Any industrial plant that released at least 23,000 kg of toxic pollutants into the environment was required to file a report. These were primarily manufacturing industries. The information collected allowed EPA to target specific industries for enforcement action. 35

36. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.7 Toxic Chemical Releases About 1.6 billion kg (3.6 billion lbs) of toxic chemicals were reported released into the environment by industry in 2012. Primary industries involved are mining, power generation, chemical, and metal manufacturing. 36

37. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sources of Toxic Releases 37

38. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Toxic Releases Dominated by Mining and Electric Generation 38

39. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.8 Hazardous-Waste Management Choices The EPA promotes a pollution prevention hierarchy (P2): Reduce the amount of pollution at the source. Recycle wastes whenever possible. Treat wastes to reduce hazard and / or volume. Dispose of wastes on land or incinerate them as last resort. 39

40. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Pollution-Prevention Hierarchy 40

41. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Reducing the Amount of Waste at the Source Pollution prevention (P2) encourages changes that prevent hazardous wastes from being produced. Many of the actions are simple and cost little. U.S. army phasing out lead bullets. Waste minimization involves manufacturing changes that can reduce waste. Replace hazardous solvents. 41

42. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Recycling Wastes Recycling wastes involves using wastes for another purpose, thus eliminating them as “waste.” Burn waste oils and solvents as fuel. Incorporate ash or other solid wastes into concrete or other building materials. 42

43. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Treating Wastes Wastes can be treated in a way that their amount is reduced or their hazardous nature is modified. Neutralization Biodegradation Air stripping Carbon absorption Precipitation 43

44. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Disposal Methods Recycling and treatment activities reduce the amount of hazardous waste that needs to be disposed of by about 20 percent. The remaining wastes are typically incinerated or disposed of on land. Incineration (thermal treatment) burns wastes at high temperatures. A well-designed, well-run incinerator can destroy 99.9999% of hazardous materials. High costs and concerns about emissions have kept incineration from becoming a major method in North America. 44

45. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Disposal Methods Land disposal is the primary method used in North America, because abundant land is available and it is less expensive than incineration. Deep-well injection Discharge of treated or untreated liquids into water sources Placement of liquid wastes into surface holding areas Storage of solid wastes in hazardous waste landfills 45

46. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.9 International Trade in Hazardous Wastes As hazardous waste regulations in industrialized countries have increased the cost of disposal, export of hazardous wastes to developing countries became economically advantageous. However, often the receiving countries lacked the administrative and technological resources to safely dispose of or recycle the waste and workers used unsafe methods that resulted in their exposure to toxins. 46

47. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.9 International Trade in Hazardous Wastes Objectives of the Basel Convention (taking effect in 1992) are to minimize generation of hazardous wastes and control and reduce transboundary movements to protect human health and the environment. Although most countries have approved the convention, there are still individuals or companies that are willing to ignore the rules. 47

48. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.10 Nuclear Waste Disposal Radioactive wastes are hazardous and toxic by the definition of the RCRA but are regulated in a different manner than other hazardous materials. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) and the Department of Energy (DOE) have responsibility for dealing with nuclear waste. 48

49. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.10 Nuclear Waste Disposal The NRC is primarily responsible for managing spent fuel from nuclear power plants, waste associated with the decommissioning of nuclear power plants, and low-level waste from a variety of sources. The DOE has major responsibility for the waste associated with cleaning up contaminated sites resulting from research and weapons development. 49

50. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sources of Nuclear Waste The nuclear fuel cycle involves mining uranium, processing it, using it as fuel for nuclear reactors, and reprocessing or disposing of spent fuel. Each of these steps in the process results in some nuclear waste. The legacy of past nuclear research and weapons development resulted in a great deal of waste and contamination 50

51. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 19.10 Nuclear Waste Disposal The DOE has become steward of a large number of sites that are contaminated with hazardous chemicals and radioactive materials. There were thousands of contaminated sites containing hundreds of underground storage tanks, millions of 55 gallon drums of waste, and thousands of sites with contaminated soils. Several major sites have been cleaned up. Each year there are fewer sites, and those remaining are smaller. 51

52. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Contamination from Nuclear Research and Weapons Production In the United States, nuclear research and development was initially related to the development of weapons for use during World War II. Many of the research and production facilities dealt with hazardous chemicals and minor radioactive wastes by burying them, pumping them into the ground, storing them in ponds, or releasing them into rivers. 52

53. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Contamination from Nuclear Research and Weapons Production Ultimately the Department of Energy (DOE) assumed responsibility the stewardship of the facilities used for both nuclear energy research and weapons production. A large number of these sites are contaminated with both hazardous chemicals and radioactive materials. Over 500 sites were evaluated to determine if cleanup activities were required. Over 100 sites required some level of cleanup. 53

54. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Contaminated Nuclear Sites Remaining 54

55. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Disposal Methods There are four general categories of nuclear wastes: Transuranic wastes are highly radioactive waste that contain large numbers of atoms that are larger than uranium with half-lives greater than 20 years. Uranium mining and milling wastes have low levels of radioactivity but are above background levels. High-level radioactive wastes are spent fuel rods and highly radioactive materials from the reprocessing of fuel rods. Low-level radioactive wastes have low levels of radioactivity and are not classified into one of the other categories. 55

56. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Transuranic Waste Disposal Transuranic waste from former nuclear weapons sites is transported to the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) near Carlsbad, NM. This facility began accepting waste in March, 1999. 56

57. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Waste Isolation Pilot Plant 57

58. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Uranium Mining and Milling Waste Waste management activities of mining and milling waste include: Building fences. Putting up warning signs. Establishing land use restrictions. Covering the wastes with a thick layer of soil and rock to prevent erosion, windblown particles, and groundwater contamination. 58

59. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Uranium Mine Tailings 59

60. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Disposal of high-level radioactive waste is a major problem for the nuclear power industry. In the U.S., about 70,000 metric tons (77,000 U.S. tons) of highly radioactive spent fuel rods are stored in special storage ponds at nuclear reactor sites. There is no permanent storage facility, and many plants are running out of temporary storage. Most experts feel the best solution is to bury waste in a stable geologic formation. 60

61. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. High-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Storage of Spent Fuel Rods Aboveground Storage of Spent Fuel Rods 61

62. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Low-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Currently, the U.S. produces about 57,000 cubic meters of low-level radioactive waste annually. It is presently buried in disposal sites in South Carolina, Washington, and Utah. 1986 was the deadline for each state providing it’s own storage sites. Later states formed regional compacts where one state provided a disposal site. Today many states do not have a permanent disposal site for low- level radioactive waste. 62

63. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Low-Level Radioactive Waste Sites 63

64. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Summary Industrialized countries of Europe and North America began major regulation of hazardous materials only during the past 40 years. Many developing countries exercise little or no control over such substances. There is no agreement as to what constitutes a hazardous waste. Things that burn, explode, corrode, and cause oxidation are typically included along with gases, radioactive materials, and poisons. 64

65. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Summary There is a difference between acute toxicity and chronic toxicity. Toxins may also be persistent or nonpersistent. RCRA established a cradle-to-grave system of dealing with hazardous wastes. CERCLA established programs for cleaning up hazardous waste sites. The primary sources of toxic releases are mining operations and electric power plants. 65

66. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. Summary The current strategy of the EPA is to limit the production of hazardous waste by reducing the waste at the source, recycling material so that it does not become waste, treating waste to reduce its hazard or volume, and as a last resort, disposing of the waste. High-level nuclear waste is currently stored on the site of nuclear power plants. Low-level nuclear waste is stored in secure landfills at 3 sites. 66