1. Chapter 18 Conservation of Biodiversity

2. Key Ideas Understand how genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem function are changing over time Identify the causes of declining biodiversity Describe the single-species approach to conserving biodiversity including the major laws that protect species Explain the ecosystem approach to conserving biodiversity and how size, shape and connectedness affect the number of species that will be protected

3. The 6 th Mass Extinction Local extinction: when a species is no longer found in area it once inhabited, but is still found elsewhere. Ecological extinction: when so few individuals of a species are left that a species no longer plays a significant ecological role in the communities where it is found. Biological extinction: when individuals of a species no longer exist on Earth. FOREVER We are currently losing approximately 50,000 species per year.

4. Premature Extinction Passenger pigeon Great aukDodo Dusky seaside sparrow Aepyornis (Madagascar) Humans activities (habitat destruction and overhunting) have caused the extinction of various species

5. Genetic Diversity Scientists want to conserve genetic diversity so that the species can survive environmental change and inbreeding will not occur. Inbreeding occurs when individuals with similar genotypes, generally relatives, breed with each other.

6. Categories of Endangerment Extinct- no known species exist today Threatened- species with a high risk of extinction in the future Near-threatened- species that are likely to become threatened in the future Least concern- species are widespread and abundant

8. Some species are endangered or threatened because of human activities. Populations of some species are recovering (such as the bald eagle and peregrine falcon). Threatened and Endangered Species

9. HABITAT LOSS, DEGRADATION, AND FRAGMENTATION Conservation biologists summarize the most important causes of premature extinction as “HIPPO”: – Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation – Invasive species – Population growth – Pollution – Overharvest

10. HABITAT LOSS, DEGRADATION, AND FRAGMENTATION The greatest threat to a species is the loss, degradation, and fragmentation of where it lives. Figure 11-7

11. Habitat Loss For most species the greatest cause of decline and extinction is habitat loss. Most habitat loss is due to human development

12. Changing Forests Some regions of the world have had large declines in forested land from 1980 to 2000

13. Habitat Fragmentation Occurs when a large area of habitat is divided into smaller, scattered, and isolated patches (“habitat islands”) Populations divided into smaller groups that are more prone to predators and disease. Ex: Bobcats, Wolves, Sandpiper, Wood thrush

14. HABITAT LOSS, DEGRADATION, AND FRAGMENTATION Reduction in ranges of four wildlife species, mostly due to habitat loss and overharvest. Figure 11-8

15. Habitat Destruction in the U.S. & Endangered Species 1. Agriculture 2. Commercial Development 3. Water Development: Dams 4. Outdoor Recreation 5. Livestock Grazing 6. Pollution- Peregrine Falcon 7. Logging of old growth forests- Northern Spotted Owl

16. INVASIVE SPECIES Many nonnative species provide us with food, medicine, and other benefits but a a few can wipe out native species, disrupt ecosystems, and cause large economic losses. Kudzu vine was introduced in the southeastern U.S. to control erosion. It has taken over native species habitats. Figure 11-A

17. Invasive Species Alien species (exotic species)- species that live outside their historical range. Invasive species- when alien species spread rapidly across large areas. Ex- Kudzu Vine, Zebra Mussel, Silver Carp

18. Problems with Invasive Species 1. Cause premature extinction of native species. Hawaii impacted the most. 2. Have no natural predators or competitors; sometimes predators are introduced. Worsens the problem. 3. Reduce biodiversity.

19. Silver carp in the Mississippi River Zebra Mussels

20. Figure 12-9a Page 235 Purple looselifeEuropean starlingAfrican honeybee (“Killer bee”) NutriaSalt cedar (Tamarisk) Marine toadWater hyacinthJapanese beetleHydrillaEuropean wild boar (Feral pig) Deliberately Introduced Species

21. Figure 12-9b Page 235 Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout) Argentina fire antEurasian muffleBrown tree snakeCommon pigeon (Rock dove) Formosan termiteZebra musselAsian long-horned beetle Asian tiger mosquitoGypsy moth larvae Accidentally Introduced Species

22. Aquatic Invasive Species Zebra Mussels Water Hyacinth

24. Characteristics of Successful Invader Species High reproductive rate, short generation time (r-selected species) Pioneer species Long lived High dispersal rate Release growth- inhibiting chemicals into soil Generalists High genetic variability Characteristics of Ecosystems Vulnerable to Invader Species Similar climate to habitat of invader Absence of predators on invading species Early successional systems Low diversity of native species Absence of fire Disturbed by human activities

25. INVASIVE SPECIES Prevention is the best way to reduce threats from invasive species, because once they arrive it is almost impossible to slow their spread. Figure 11-13

26. Case Study: Restoring the Florida Everglades The world’s largest ecological restoration project involves trying to undo some of the damage inflicted on the Everglades by human activities. – 90% of park’s wading birds have vanished. – Other vertebrate populations down 75-95%. – Large volumes of water that once flowed through the park have been diverted for crops and cities. – Runoff has caused noxious algal blooms. – Invasive snakes have greatly reduced biodiversity

27. Restoring the Florida Everglades The project has been attempting to restore the Everglades and Florida water supplies. Figure 12-10

28. Pythons Removed From The Everglades The chart below shows the number of pythons removed from the park and neighboring areas between 1995 and 2010. Researchers say the slight decrease in the number of pythons captured in 2010 might be the result of a severe freeze in January of that year. Source: Michael Dorcas/Davidson University http://www.npr.org/2012/01/30/146088909/invasive-pythons-put-squeeze-on-everglades- animals

29. Overharvesting When individuals of a species are removed at a rate faster than the population can replace them. Ex- dodo, American bison, passenger pigeon.

30. Extinction Threats From Smuggling, Poaching, and Hunting 1. Illegal smuggling of endangered species; 3 rd to smuggling of drugs and weapons. Sadly, most animals die in transit. 2. Exotic Pets- birds, reptiles, amphibians 3. Illegal Poaching- many animals are worth $$$. Rhino horn- $13,000/lb

31. Causes of Extinction and Depletion Many species of sea turtles are becoming endangered because of loss of beach habitat for laying eggs, taking of eggs for food, and unintentional capture by fishing boats. Fig. 25–13 Saving Sea Turtles With a Lights-Out Policy in Florida

32. PROTECTING AND SUSTAINING MARINE BIODIVERSITY A "Turtle Excluder Device" is a grid of bars with an opening either at the top or the bottom of the trawl net. The grid is fitted into the neck of a shrimp trawl. Small animals such as shrimp pass through the bars and are caught in the bag end of the trawl. When larger animals, such as marine turtles and sharks, are captured in the trawl they strike the grid bars and are ejected through the opening. Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) - NOAA Fisheries Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) - NOAA Fisheries

33. Overfishing and Extinction: Gone Fishing, Fish Gone About 75% of the world’s commercially valuable marine fish species are over fished or fished near their sustainable limits. – Big fish are becoming scarce. – Smaller fish are next. – We throw away 30% of the fish we catch. – We needlessly kill sea mammals and birds.

34. Population Growth and Pollution Each year plastic items dumped from ships and left as litter on beaches threaten marine life. Figure 12-3

35. Lacey Act One of the earliest laws in the U.S. to control the trade of wildlife. First passed in 1900, the act prohibited the transport of illegally harvested game animals, primarily birds and mammals, across state lines.

36. CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Developed in 1973 to control the international trade of threatened plants and animals. Today, CITIES is an international agreement between 175 countries of the world.

37. Red List The IUCN keeps a list of threatened species, known as the red list. Each country has its own way to monitor and regulate the import and export of animals on the list.

38. Conservation Legislation Marine Mammal Protection Act- prohibits the killing of all marine mammals in the U.S. and prohibits the import or export of any marine mammal body parts.

39. Endangered Species Act Endangered Species Act- first passed in 1973, it authorizes the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to determine which species can be listed as threatened or endangered and prohibits the harming of these species. Trading these species is also illegal. The act also authorizes the government to purchase habitat that is critical to the species.

40. MANAGING AND SUSTAINING MARINE FISHERIES There are a number of ways to manage marine fisheries more sustainably and protect marine biodiversity. Some fishing communities regulate fish harvests on their own and others work with the government to regulate them. – Modern fisheries have weakened the ability of many coastal communities to regulate their own fisheries.

41. PROTECTING, SUSTAINING, AND RESTORING LAKES AND RIVERS Dams can provide many human benefits but can also disrupt some of the ecological services that rivers provide. – 119 dams on Columbia River have sharply reduced (94% drop) populations of wild salmon. – U.S. government has spent $3 billion in unsuccessful efforts to save the salmon. – Removing hydroelectric dams will restore native spawning grounds.

43. Convention on Biological Diversity In 1992, nations came together and made a treaty to protect biodiversity. The treaty had three objectives: conserve biodiversity, sustainably use biodiversity, and equitably share the benefits that emerge from the commercial use of genetic resources such as pharmaceutical drugs.

44. Size, Shape and Connectedness When designing and managing protected areas we must consider how close to another area they should be, how large the area is, and the amount of edge habitat the area contains. Edge habitat- the area where two different communities come together, typically forming an abrupt transition. Ex. A grassy field meeting a forest.

45. Biosphere Reserves Protected areas consisting of zones that vary in the amount of permissible human impact.

46. PROTECTING, SUSTAINING, AND RESTORING WETLANDS Requiring government permits for filling or destroying U.S. wetlands has slowed their loss, but attempts to weaken this protection continue. Figure 12-8

47. PROTECTING WILD SPECIES: THE SANCTUARY APPROACH The U.S. has set aside 544 federal refuges for wildlife, but many refuges are suffering from environmental degradation. Pelican Island was the nation’s first wildlife refuge. Figure 11-20

48. PROTECTING WILD SPECIES: THE SANCTUARY APPROACH Gene banks, botanical gardens and using farms to raise threatened species can help prevent extinction, but these options lack funding and storage space. Zoos and aquariums can help protect endangered animal species by preserving some individuals with the long-term goal of reintroduction, but suffer from lack of space and money.

49. RECONCILIATION ECOLOGY Reconciliation ecology involves finding ways to share places we dominate with other species. – Replacing monoculture grasses with native species. – Maintaining habitats for insect eating bats can keep down unwanted insects. – Reduction and elimination of pesticides to protect non-target organisms (such as vital insect pollinators).

50. Using Reconciliation Ecology to Protect Bluebirds Putting up bluebird boxes with holes too small for (nonnative) competitors in areas where trees have been cut down have helped reestablish populations. Figure 11-B