1. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Chapter 10: Infancy and Childhood Case Study: Bullying: A Schoolyard EpidemicBullying: A Schoolyard Epidemic Section 1: Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology Section 2: Physical DevelopmentPhysical Development Section 3: Social DevelopmentSocial Development Section 4: Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development Lab: Applying What You’ve LearnedApplying What You’ve Learned

2. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Bullying has devastating effects. It makes students think of school as a violent environment. Bullying impairs adjustment to middle school and high school. An estimated 70 to 75 percent of students are bullied at some point. Many bullies have common characteristics, including lower than average achievement and home environments troubled by violence. Facts About Bullying Case Study: Bullying: A Schoolyard Epidemic One study found that bullying was more often associated with delinquent behavior, ADHD, and depression. Bigger, more physically developed children often bully younger, smaller kids.

3. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

4. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Developmental Psychology Developmental psychology is the study of how people grow and change throughout their lives. Developmental psychologists are concerned with many issues. One issue is the extent to which heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) affect development. Another is whether people develop in distinct stages or whether development is more gradual and steady. Section 1 at a Glance

5. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Reading Focus Why and how do psychologists study development? How do both heredity and environment contribute to the development process? How would you describe development as a process of stages versus continuity? Main Idea The field of developmental psychology examines physical, social, and cognitive development. Heredity and environment control different aspects of development to varying degrees. Developmental Psychology

6. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Developmental psychology is the field in which psychologists study how people grow and change throughout the life span, from conception until death. Psychologists use two methods to study people across the life span. –The longitudinal method, in which researchers select a group of participants and then observe the same group for a period of time, often years or decades –The cross-sectional method, in which researchers select a sample that includes people of different ages and then compare the participants in the different age groups The Study of Development

7. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Answer: Early childhood experiences affect people as adolescents and adults, and by studying early stages of development, psychologists can learn about developmental problems. Draw Conclusions What are two reasons that psychologists are interested in studying infancy and childhood? Reading Check

8. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Developmental psychologists are concerned with two general issues: –Ways in which heredity and environmental influences contribute to human development –Whether development occurs gradually or in stages Psychologists have long debated the extent to which human behavior is determined by heredity (nature) or environment (nurture). Maturation is the automatic and sequential process of development that results from genetic signals. A critical period is a stage or point in development during which a person is best suited to learn a particular skill or behavior pattern. Heredity and Environment

9. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Developmental psychologists debate whether human development occurs primarily in stages or as a continuous process. Maturational theorists generally believe that most development occurs in stages. Jean Piaget is one of the most famous stage theorists. Other psychologists, including J. H. Flavell, argue that cognitive development is a gradual and continuous process. Stages Versus Continuity

10. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

11. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

12. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Physical Development Children grow physically from the time they are conceived through infancy and childhood. Reflexes, motor development, and perceptual development are all important aspects of physical development. Section 2 at a Glance

13. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Changes in reflexes, gains in height and weight, motor development, and perceptual development are examples of physical development. The most dramatic gains in height and weight occur before an infant’s birth. During infancy—the period from birth to the age of two years— dramatic gains continue in height and weight. During childhood—the period from two years old to adolescence—children gain on average two to three inches and four to six pounds each year until they reach the start of adolescence. Physical Growth

14. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. A reflex is an involuntary reaction or response, such as swallowing. Reflexes are inborn, not learned, and they occur automatically. Reflexes include: –Grasping –Rooting –Sucking –Swallowing –The Moro reflex –The Babinski reflex Reflexes

15. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. The development of purposeful movement is called motor development. Gross motor development refers to babies’ progress in coordinating major muscle groups. Fine motor development refers to coordination of the hands, face, and other small muscles. The point at which various types of motor development occur is different from infant to infant and even from culture to culture. Motor Development

16. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Answer: gross motor development and fine motor development Identify What are the two types of motor development? Reading Check

17. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Infants tend to prefer new and interesting stimuli. Infants’ perceptual preferences are influenced by their age. Infants’ depth perception seems to be influenced by experience. Perceptual Development

18. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Main Idea Social development in infants and children has much to do with parents’ behaviors, histories, personalities, and abilities. Other caregivers are involved in raising many American children. Social Development

19. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Attachment is an important factor affecting social development. It is defined as the emotional ties that form between people. Up until four months of age, infants prefer being held or even just being with someone. By about four months, infants develop strong attachments to their main caregivers, usually their mothers. By about eight months, some infants develop stranger anxiety and separation anxiety. Development of Attachment Attachment Based on studies with monkeys, researchers have concluded that attachment grows more from contact comfort than from feeding. Contact comfort is the need to touch and be touched by something soft. Contact Comfort

20. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Secure Versus Insecure Attachment When mothers or other primary caregivers are affectionate and reliable, infants usually become securely attached. When caregivers are unresponsive or unreliable, infants are usually insecurely attached. Secure infants may mature into secure children. Imprinting For many animals, attachment is an instinct. In a process called imprinting, some animals become attached to the first moving object they see. Children do not imprint. It takes several months before children become attached to their main caregivers.

21. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Autism Autism is a developmental disorder that prevents children from forming proper attachments with others. People with autism have a very wide variety of symptoms from very severe to very subtle. Mild autism can go undiagnosed for years. Parents and doctors often recognize symptoms of autism during infancy and early childhood.

22. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Answer: Contact comfort is an instinctual need to touch and be touched by something soft. It was originally thought that infants became attached to those who fed them, but recent findings indicate that attachment grows more from such bodily contact. Define What is contact comfort and how does it relate to the idea of attachment? Reading Check

23. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Warm or Cold? Warm parents show a great deal of affection to their children. Cold parents may not be as affectionate toward their children or appear to enjoy them as much. Research suggests that children fare better when their parents are warm to them. Children of warm parents are more likely to be well adjusted. Strict or Permissive? Some parents are strict with their children, imposing many rules and supervising their children closely. Some parents are permissive with their children, imposing fewer rules and watching their children less closely. Authoritative parents combine warmth with age appropriate rules and responsibilities. Authoritarian parents believe in obedience for its own sake. Styles of Parenting

24. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

25. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

26. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Most parents are kind and loving to their children. Yet child abuse is relatively widespread and seriously underreported. The following factors are associated with child abuse and neglect: –Stress, especially from unemployment or poverty –A history of physical or sexual abuse in at least one parent’s family –Acceptance of violence as a way of coping with stress –Lack of attachment to the child –Substance abuse –Rigid attitudes about child rearing Studies show that children who are abused run a higher risk of developing psychological problems. Child abuse tends to run in families. Child Abuse and Neglect

27. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Answer: Children who have been abused are more likely to act in violent ways; they may imitate their parents’ behavior, or they may adopt their parents’ strict ideas about discipline. Describe Why is a parent with a history of child abuse in his or her own family more likely to become a child abuser? Reading Check

28. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Most American parents work outside the home and more than half of mothers of children younger than one year of age are working mothers. Millions of preschoolers are cared for in day-care facilities. Studies of the effects of day care on parent-child attachments have shown mixed results. Day care seems to have mixed effects on other aspects of children’s social development. The quality of care seems to be more important than who provides it. Child Care

29. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Answer: partly because of the differences in quality of care provided in different day-care centers, and partly because psychologists have interpreted the same phenomena in different ways Recall Explain why the effects of day care on children are said to be mixed. Reading Check

30. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Self-esteem, the value or worth that people attach to themselves, begins to develop in early childhood. Secure attachment plays a major role in influencing self-esteem. Another influence is how parents react to their children. Children who receive unconditional positive regard usually develop high self-esteem. Children who receive conditional positive regard may have lower self-esteem. Influences on Self-Esteem Self-Esteem Girls tend to display greater competence in reading and general academic skills and boys tend to display competence in math and physical skills. This may be because this is what girls and boys are supposed to be good at. It is not for a genetic reason. Gender and Self-Esteem

31. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. The Self-Esteem Trap By the 1970s, greater self-esteem was thought of by many as a potential cure-all for society’s problems. Showering children with praise regardless of their performance was the common practice. Findings in 2000 showed that high self-esteem in children did not lead to higher grades and that high self-esteem did not make violent kids any less so or keep kids from becoming bullies. Focusing on building self-esteem at the expense of other qualities, such as self-control or self-discipline, may be misguided. Age and Self-Esteem Although children gain in competence as they grow older, their self- esteem tends to decline during the elementary school years. It seems to reach a low point at about age 12 or 13 and increases again during adolescence.

32. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Answer: It begins to develop in early childhood. It is influenced by the way parents react to their children and by fostering a sense of competence. Recall When and how does a person’s sense of self-esteem develop? Reading Check

33. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Main Idea The study of cognitive development looks at how people’s thought processes change and evolve over time. Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg are two influential theorists in this area. Cognitive Development

34. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. The Sensorimotor Stage The first stage of cognitive development is the sensorimotor stage. This stage is characterized by learning to coordinate sensation and perception with motor activity. It is also characterized by object permanence – objects exist even if they cannot be seen or touched. Assimilation and Accommodation Piaget believed that human beings use assimilation and accommodation to organize new information. Assimilation is the process by which new information is placed into categories that already exist. Accommodation is change brought about by new information. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

35. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. The Concrete-Operational Stage In the concrete-operational stage, children begin to show signs of adult thinking. They are logical only when they think about specific objects and concrete experiences. They focus on two dimensions of a problem at the same time. They are less egocentric than children in earlier stages. The Preoperational Stage The next stage is the preoperational stage. It is characterized by one-dimensional thinking and egocentrism.

36. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Criticism of Piaget’s Theories Some psychologists have questioned the accuracy of Piaget’s views. Recent research indicates that preschoolers are less egocentric than Piaget’s research suggested. His theories are still respected, however. The Formal-Operational Stage The final stage in Piaget’s theory is the formal-operational stage. People in this stage think abstractly. They can deal with hypothetical situations. They can solve problems and use imagination.

37. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

38. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Answer: Sensorimotor Stage, Preoperational Stage, Concrete-Operational Stage, Formal-Operational Stage Recall What are the stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development? Reading Check

39. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. The Preconventional Level Children through the age of nine use preconventional moral reasoning to base their judgments of the consequences of behavior. The Postconventional Level Reasoning based on a person’s own moral standards of goodness is called postconventional moral reasoning. The Conventional Level People at this level use conventional moral reasoning to make judgments in terms of whether an act conforms to conventional standards of behavior. Bias in Kohlberg’s Theory Kohlberg’s stages and scoring system may have been biased to favor males. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

40. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.

41. Infancy and Childhood Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Answer: People evolve from self-preservation (avoiding punishment) to operating under the dictates of their own consciences. Describe How does moral reasoning change throughout Kohlberg’s stages? Reading Check