1. What is Syntax? Syntax?

2. Syntax is the way words and clauses are arranged to form sentences. That arrangement contributes to and enhances meaning and effect.

3. Or more simply: It’s how authors put words and phrases together. Syntax helps authors effectively make their points.

4. Syntax controls pacing. But how does an author do that with words and sentences?

5. In order to quicken the pace, the author will use shorter, simpler sentences. In order to slow down the pace, the author will use longer, more complex sentences.

6. When analyzing syntax, consider such questions as: Are the sentences simple and direct, or complex and convoluted? Does the author use repetition or parallel structure for emphasis? (Note: Always say what is emphasized and why.) Are there rhetorical questions in the passage?

7. Arrangement of Ideas – Are ideas set out in a special way for a purpose or effect? RHETORICAL SENTENCE TYPES LOOSE sentence : The main clause is at the beginning with phrases and/or dependent clauses following it. (A loose sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual end of the sentence.) The loose sentence is characterized by its informal or conversational style; it’s the opposite of the periodic sentence! ex. We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences. ex. Jack berated his subordinates on a regular basis, but he was not a very good worker himself; everyone thought he should be fired.

8. Arrangement cont. PERIODIC sentence: A sentence that is not syntactically complete until the “period.” Includes at least one dependent clause and/or phrases before the independent clause (often parallel). “Split-periodic”: Subject and predicate are separated from each other by phrases and/or dependent clauses. Used in formal, rather than conversational writing... Heightens suspense! ex. That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton.

9. Periodic Sentence Examples If students are absorbed in their own limited worlds, if they are disdainful of the work of their teachers, if they are scornful of the lessons of the past, then the great cultural heritage which must be transmitted from generation to generation will be lost. Shivering in anticipation of the next thunderbolt and huddled in the dark recess of the staircase as the rain battered against the window and the tall grass bent in the wind that whistled through the gnarled oaks, Norma’s old mongrel whimpered.

10. PARALLEL structure: Grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence. Creates balance; invites readers to compare/contrast the parallel elements. Repetition often plays an important part in parallelism. Ex. “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness...” Faulty parallelism should be fixed! Wrong: In the winter, I like skiing and to skate. Right: In the winter, I like skiing and skating. Right: In the winter, I like to ski and to skate.

11. Arrangement cont... BALANCED Structure : Phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure (i.e., parallelism), meaning or length. In reading a balanced sentence aloud, one tends to pause between the balanced parts, each seeming equal. Often balanced phrases present antithetical ideas. Ex. “If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.” (John F. Kennedy)

12. Natural order sentence : A sentence that follows the order: Subject – Verb - Object ex. Oranges grow in California. Inverted order sentence: a sentence where the predicate (main verb) comes before the subject. ex. In California grow oranges. An author will vary word order for an effect. It is your job to decide what effect the author is trying to achieve

13. Sentence Classifications: FUNCTIONAL Consider the following four basic types in examining sentence structures Declarative: Makes a statement. ex. The king is sick. Imperative: Gives a command. ex. Bow to the king. Interrogative: Asks a question. ex. What’s the matter with the king? Exclamatory: Makes an exclamation. ex. The king is dead!

14. Four Basic Structures: GRAMMATICAL Simple sentence: One independent clause ex. The singer bowed to her adoring audience. Compound sentence: Two or more independent clauses (joined by a comma with a coordinating conjunction—and, but, for, or, nor, yet, so—or a semicolon) ex. The singer bowed gratefully to the audience, but she sang no encores. ex. The singer bowed gratefully to the audience; however, she sang no encores.

15. Complex sentence: One independent clause and one or more dependent (subordinate) clauses. ex. Although the singer bowed gratefully to the audience, she sang no encores. Compound-complex sentence: Two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent (subordinate) clause. ex. The singer bowed gratefully while the audience applauded, but she sang no encores.

16. Always look for the anomalies – that is, those syntactical features that differ from the “norm.”

17. And remember – syntactically, you create emphasis by: Position – Where you put something in the sentence Isolation – Setting it off by itself (dash, quotation marks, parenthesis, etc.) Repetition – The number of times something is repeated Proportion – The size of the idea and how much of the piece the idea takes up

18. Authors do these things on purpose. Do not assume sentences are composed without the rules of syntax in mind.

19. So let’s look at a paragraph by Nancy Mairs-----

20. I am a cripple. I choose this word to name me. I choose from among several possibilities, the most common of which are “handicapped” and “disabled.” I made the choice a number of years ago, without thinking, unaware of my motives for doing so. Even now, I’m not sure what those motives are, but I recognize that they are complex and not entirely flattering. People – crippled or not – wince at the word “cripple,” as they do not at “handicapped” or disabled.” Perhaps I want them to wince. I want them to see me as a tough customer, one to whom the fates/gods/viruses have not been kind, but who can face the brutal truth of her existence squarely. As a cripple, I swagger.

21. What’s the first unusual thing that you notice? The sentence: I am a cripple.

22. Why does the author use this short sentence in the first position? To draw attention to the politically incorrect word “cripple.” And why use that diction choice? To shock, and to show that even though people don’t call her this to her face, the word is always present.

23. So what do you notice next? What else is different?

24. I am a cripple. I choose this word to name me. I choose from among several possibilities, the most common of which are “handicapped” and “disabled.” I made the choice a number of years ago, without thinking, unaware of my motives for doing so. Even now, I’m not sure what those motives are, but I recognize that they are complex and not entirely flattering. People – crippled or not – wince at the word “cripple,” as they do not at “handicapped” or disabled.” Perhaps I want them to wince. I want them to see me as a tough customer, one to whom the fates/gods/viruses have not been kind, but who can face the brutal truth of her existence squarely. As a cripple, I swagger.

25. Remember: Isolation and Repetition The dashes isolate and bring extra attention to the words “crippled or not” more forcefully than commas would. Also, notice the continued repetition of the word “crippled.” Perhaps if you confront the word, you will eventually be able to look at her, the person, not just her, the cripple.

26. So what do you notice next? What else is different?

27. I am a cripple. I choose this word to name me. I choose from among several possibilities, the most common of which are “handicapped” and “disabled.” I made the choice a number of years ago, without thinking, unaware of my motives for doing so. Even now, I’m not sure what those motives are, but I recognize that they are complex and not entirely flattering. People – crippled or not – wince at the word “cripple,” as they do not at “handicapped” or disabled.” Perhaps I want them to wince. I want them to see me as a tough customer, one to whom the fates/gods/viruses have not been kind, but who can face the brutal truth of her existence squarely. As a cripple, I swagger.

28. Repetition – harsh word – wince Why? Perhaps to show you that you aren’t the only one who is uncomfortable by someone who is crippled. She is still a person – look past the condition to the person.

29. So what do you notice next? What else is different?

30. I am a cripple. I choose this word to name me. I choose from among several possibilities, the most common of which are “handicapped” and “disabled.” I made the choice a number of years ago, without thinking, unaware of my motives for doing so. Even now, I’m not sure what those motives are, but I recognize that they are complex and not entirely flattering. People – crippled or not – wince at the word “cripple,” as they do not at “handicapped” or disabled.” Perhaps I want them to wince. I want them to see me as a tough customer, one to whom the fates/gods/viruses have not been kind, but who can face the brutal truth of her existence squarely. As a cripple, I swagger.

31. Position: fates/gods/viruses Note the use of slashes (/) to juxtapose and jam these words right up next to each other. The slashes allow the words to have equal emphasis while “hitting you all at once.”

32. So what do you notice next? What else is different?

33. I am a cripple. I choose this word to name me. I choose from among several possibilities, the most common of which are “handicapped” and “disabled.” I made the choice a number of years ago, without thinking, unaware of my motives for doing so. Even now, I’m not sure what those motives are, but I recognize that they are complex and not entirely flattering. People – crippled or not – wince at the word “cripple,” as they do not at “handicapped” or disabled.” Perhaps I want them to wince. I want them to see me as a tough customer, one to whom the fates/gods/viruses have not been kind, but who can face the brutal truth of her existence squarely. As a cripple, I swagger.

34. What did the author do here? Position – Last sentence gets more attention Use of short declarative sentence adds power. Repetition – “cripple” Also notice the diction choice of “swagger”

35. Syntax often goes unnoticed by the reader, but contributes strongly to the reader’s impression of the topic presented.