1. DEFINING AGGRESSION: –Harm to living vs. nonliving (9, 23) –Accident vs. intention (8,21) –Actual damage vs. no physical damage (10, 13, 18) –Self defense (3, 13, 14) –Duty or job responsibility (3, 4, 5, 19, 30, 22) –Predation and instinctual behavior (1,2, 25) –Survival (1,6, 16) –Acts involving animals other than humans (7, 16, 17, 18) –Covert acts (11, 14) –Inaction (12, 15) –Self-injury (24) –Killing for sport (17, 25)

2. Aggression: defined “Behavior intended to hurt another person, whether done reactively out of hostility or proactively as a calculated means to an end” “Any behavior whose intent is to inflict harm or injury on another living being.” Hostile or forceful action intended to dominate or violate” “Behavior that is intended to injure another person (physically or verbally) or to destroy property” “A response that delivers noxious stimuli to another organism” Key Point: psychology has trouble defining aggression.

3. Aggression can have many forms and purposes:  Aggression can be physical, verbal, relational: e.g. punching, insulting, shooting, betraying.  Aggression can be planned or reactive.  Aggression can be driven by hostile rage or can be a coldly calculated means to an end. Social Relations Aggression Definition: Behavior with the intent of harming another person.

4. Violence "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation."

5. There is not one genetically universal style or amount of aggressiveness in human behavior But there are biological factors which may explain variation in levels of aggression:  Genetic factors (including Heredity)  Neural factors, esp. Brain Activity  Biochemistry, esp. hormones and alcohol Social Relations The Biology of Aggression

6. Explanation of Aggression  Neural influences – given provocation, will facilitate aggression.  Limbic system – amygdala  Diminished frontal lobe activity  Biochemical influences  Hormones and alcohol  Alcohol focuses attention on a provocation rather than on inhibitory cues.

7. There is evidence that aggression is tied to genes, even if we’re not sure which ones: 1.Aggression can be selectively bred in animals and then passed on to the next generation 2.Identical twins are more similar in their levels of aggression than fraternal twins or siblings 3.Males are more prone to aggression, and differ by a chromosome (female XX vs. male XY) Social Relations Genetic Influences on Aggression

8. Evidence of brain links to aggression:  One monkey learned to subdue the aggression of another, by turning on an electrode implanted in an aggression-inhibiting brain area  A woman became rude and violent after painless stimulation of her amygdala  Underactive frontal lobes (which inhibit impulses) are linked to aggression, violence Social Relations Neural Influences Brain Activity and Aggression

9.  Testosterone levels are correlated with irritability, assertiveness, impulsiveness, and low tolerance for frustration.  Traits linked to testosterone levels, such as facial width, also are linked to aggressiveness.  Violent criminal males have high testosterone levels along with low serotonin levels  Reducing testosterone reduces aggression, in both humans and animals Social Relations Biochemistry of Aggression The Male hormone

10. Alcohol may chemically or psychologically make the following more likely:  Disinhibited aggressive behavior  Aggressive responses to frustration  Violent crimes, especially spousal abuse  Lack of attention to peacemaking options  Interpreting neutral acts as provocations Social Relations Biochemistry of Aggression Alcohol

11. Levels of aggression are influenced by:  Aversive conditions and feeling frustrated;  Getting reinforced for aggressive behavior;  Having aggression modeled at home or in the media  Adopting social scripts for aggression from culture and the media. Social Relations Psychosocial Factors and Aggression

12. Aversive/Unpleasant Conditions Frustration-Aggression Principle: After repeated frustrating events, Anger can build, and find a target, and then: Aggression can erupt, possibly against someone who was not the initial cause of the frustration. Aggression is often a response to frustration and other aversive conditions and events.  Violence increases during hot years, hot days.  Also aversive: pain, heat, crowding, foul odors.

13.  Sometimes aggression works! Bullies win control and obedience, Robbers gain wealth, tacklers who injure receivers get bonuses. Aggression, like any behavior, increases in frequency and intensity after it is reinforced.  Parents and Aggression- Replacement Training can guide youth by rewarding other, prosocial behaviors that still meet personal needs. Reinforced/Rewarded Aggression

14. Family, Cultural Models for Aggression  Parents dislike aggressive behavior in their children, but unfortunately: They may have modeled that behavior, such as yelling, as their kids watched them handle frustration.  Some cultures model aggression and violence as a solution to personal and societal injustice.  Models for aggression are also conveyed through media, in the form of social scripts.

15. Aggression in Media: Social Scripts  Aggression portrayed in video, music, books, and other media, follows and teaches a script.  When confronted with new situations, we may rely on social scripts to guide our responses. Many scripts proscribe aggression. Social Scripts: Culturally constructed directions on how to act, downloaded from media as a “file” or “program” in the mind. Effects of Social Scripts Studies: Exposure to one aggressive story increases other forms of aggressive behavior.  Watchers of TV crime see the world as more threatening (needing a aggressive defense?)  Randomly assigned to watch explicit pornography, study participants suggested shorter sentences for rapists and accepted the myth that victims may have enjoyed the rape.

16. More Media Effects on Aggression  Exposure to violence in media, especially in pornography, seems to increase, rather than release, male aggressive impulses.  Media can portray minorities, women, the poor, and others with less power as being weak, stupid, submissive, and less human, and thus deserving their victimhood.  Congressional Testimony Congressional Testimony Video Games and Aggression  People randomly assigned to play ultraviolent video games showed increases in hostility  People playing a game helping characters, showed increased real-life helping  People have acted out violent acts from video games; People playing the most violent games tended to be the most aggressive; but what came first, aggressiveness or games?

17. The Many Origins of Aggression

18. Explanation of Aggression  Frustration-Aggression Principle  principle that frustration – the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal – creates anger, which can generate aggression  Enhances fight or flight  9/11

19. Learning and Aggression Our reactions are more likely to be aggressive in situations where experience has taught us that aggression pays. –Parents modeling –Cultural –Single parent homes (without the father) –TV / Video GamesTV / Video Games –Congressional TestimonyCongressional Testimony Aggressive behavior arises from the interaction of persons and situations.

20. Sexual Aggression & the Media TV violence desensitizes people to crime. 1/5 th of women report that a man has forced them to do something sexually ½ reports some form of unwanted sexual coercion, Most report sexual harassment. Why?

21. Sexual Aggression & the Media Coinciding with the increase in sexual aggression was the rise of home videos. –Gives greater access to “R” movies 400,000 for profit porn Internet sites Pay-per view porn and Internet porn accounts for $10-14 billion industry

22. Sexual Aggression & the Media Watching X-rated films makes one’s own partner less attractive., make a woman’s friendliness seem more sexual, and make sexual aggression seem less serious. Key point: pornography that portrays sexual aggression as pleasurable for the victim increases the acceptance of the use of coercion in sexual relations.

23. Defects in the normal dispersal of serotonin in the brain have been linked to aggression and violence by a variety of methods. Researchers have found evidence that serotonin exerts inhibitory control over impulsive aggression Violence exposure, particularlyfamily violence, can wreak havoc on the development of neural circuits underlying basic mechanisms of affective and cognitive development (Andersen et al., 2008; Choi, Jeong, Rohan, Polcari,& Teicher, 2009; Miskovic, Schmidt, Georgiades, Boyle, & Macmillan,2010; Seckfort et al., 2008, Sheu, Polcari, Anderson, & Teicher,2010).

24. 1.Excitation Transfer Theory 2.Social Learning Theory 3.Cognitive Theory 1.Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 2.Information Processing 4.Mental Illness and Aggression 5.Personality and aggression 6.Intelligence and Aggression 7.Fantasy and Aggression