1. Morality and the Moral Life

2. Ethics (moral philosophy): The study of morality using the methods of philosophy. Morality: Our beliefs about right and wrong actions and good and bad persons or character.

3. Characteristics of Moral Norms: 1. Overridingness 2. Impartiality 3. Universality 4. Reason-based

4. Divine Command Theory The doctrine that God is the creator of morality. Moral Objectivism The view that there are moral standards that are true or correct for everyone. Moral Relativism The view that moral standards do not have independent status but are relative to what individuals or cultures believe.

5. Subjective Relativism The view that right actions are those endorsed by an individual. Cultural Relativism The view that right actions are those endorsed by one’s culture.

6. The Implications of Subjective Relativism 1. It implies that on moral matters, individuals are infallible. 2. It entails an implausible moral equivalence. (the sincere moral views of any individual are as good or as true as those of any other). 3. It implies that moral disagreement is virtually impossible.

7. The Implications of Cultural Relativism 1. It implies that cultures are morally infallible. 2. It implies that other cultures are beyond criticism. 3. It entails that all social reformers are never right.

8. The Implications of Cultural Relativism 4. It rules out moral progress. 5. It implies moral equivalence—one culture’s moral beliefs are as good as any other.

9. The Argument for Cultural Relativism 1. If people’s moral judgments differ from culture to culture, moral standards are relative to culture (there are no objective moral standards). 2. People’s moral judgments do differ from culture to culture. 3. Therefore, moral standards are relative to culture (there are no objective moral standards).

10. The Argument for Cultural Relativism 1. If people’s moral judgments differ from culture to culture, moral standards are relative to culture (there are no objective moral standards).—FALSE 2. People’s moral judgments do differ from culture to culture.—DUBIOUS 3. Therefore, moral standards are relative to culture (there are no objective moral standards).—CONCLUSION UNSUPPORTED

11. Cultural Relativism vs. Moral Objectivism  Moral objectivism does not entail intolerance.  Cultural relativism can easily justify intolerance and cannot consistently advocate tolerance.

12. Moral Theory A theory that explains why an action is right or wrong or why a person or a person’s character is good or bad. A moral theory tells us what it is about an action that makes it right, or what it is about a person that makes him or her good.

13. Moral Theories  Consequentialist theories insist that the rightness of actions depends solely on their consequences or results.  Deontological (nonconsequentialist) theories say that the rightness of actions is determined not solely by their consequences but partly or entirely by their intrinsic nature.

14. Moral Theories  utilitarianism The view that right actions are those that result in the most beneficial balance of good over bad consequences for everyone involved.  ethical egoism The view that right actions are those that further one’s own best interests.

15. Moral Theories  Kant’s theory The theory that right actions are those that accord with the categorical imperative.  virtue ethics A moral theory that focuses on the development of virtuous character.

16. Moral Theories  ethics of care A moral perspective that emphasizes the unique demands of specific situations and the virtues and feelings that are central to close personal relationships.  feminist ethics An approach to morality aimed at advancing women’s interests, underscoring their distinctive experiences and characteristics, and advancing the obvious truth that women and men are morally equal.

17. The Moral Criteria of Adequacy  Consistency with our considered moral judgments  Consistency with the facts of the moral life  Resourcefulness in moral problem-solving

18. The Argument against Ethical Egoism 1. If a moral theory conflicts with what we take to be our plausible moral intuitions, we have strong reasons to doubt it. 2. Ethical Egoism seems to be inconsistent with our considered moral judgments. 3. Ethical Egoism appears to conflict with an essential element of the moral life: impartiality. 4. Therefore, we have strong reasons to doubt it.

19. The Argument against the Divine Command Theory 1. If an action is morally right only because God says so, then any action at all could be morally right. 2. If any action at all could be morally right, there could be no reasons for God’s willing one way or the other. 3. But if God has no reasons for his commands, no standards other than his say-so, his commands are arbitrary—an implausible implication. 4. Therefore, the divine command theory must be false.

20. Argument against Utilitarianism 1. If a moral theory conflicts with our considered moral judgments, we have strong reasons to doubt it. 2. Utilitarianism conflicts with our considered moral judgments regarding justice. 3. Therefore, we have strong reasons to doubt the truth of utilitarianism.

21. An Argument against Kantian Ethics 1. If a moral theory conflicts with our considered moral judgments, we have strong reasons to doubt it. 2. Kant’s theory conflicts with our considered moral judgments regarding conflicts among duties. 3. Therefore, we have strong reasons to doubt the truth of Kant’s theory.