1. 1 Vias and Capacitors Chris Allen (callen@eecs.ku.edu) Course website URL people.eecs.ku.edu/~callen/713/EECS713.htm

2. 2 Vias Via, also known as plated through hole (PTH) Purpose Mounting of through-hole components (mechanical and electrical) Routing signal traces between layers (electrical) Thermal resistance reduction (mechanical) Different requirements for each via purpose Issues Mechanical tolerances and reliability Capacitance and inductance Via placement / return current path routing issues Via anatomy and parameters Pad diameter Hole diameter Clearance hole diameter Plated hole diameter Filled vias (solder, epoxy)

3. 3 Via requirements Hole diameter requirements For mechanical vias (mounting through-hole components) via hole diameter > lead diameter by at least 10 mils Drilled hole diameter larger than minimum hole size determined by plating variations For electrical vias (not mechanical or thermal vias) minimum via diameter is related to board thickness T/D via = minimum, T = board thickness, D via = via diameter limit comes from via barrel cracking (mechanical issue) Text says min T/D via = 5 Board manufacturers recommend min T/D via 7 to 15

4. 4 Via requirements Pad diameter requirements Pad diameter must be larger than hole diameter by a margin determined by minimum annular ring requirement hole diameter hole alignment tolerance Example board manufacturers: min pad diameter 6 to 14 mils min annular ring width 5 mils min finished hole diameter 10 mils min drill diameter 6 to 10 mils min drill laser diameter 3 to 5 mils max plated hole diameter 246 mils See example PCB fabrication capabilities and design guidelines on class website under ‘Other class documents’

5. 5 Via requirements Minimum clearance requirements The minimum clearance between circuit elements (e.g., via pad, trace, component pad) determined several factors: the precision of etching process required to yield good parts as small imperfections could lead to shorts between circuit elements the assembly process used wave soldering, solder bridges may be created at gaps  short circuits the minumum clearance or ‘air gap’ to avoid breakdown or arcing high voltages (kV) can breakdown dielectrics or air if the gap is too small Minimum clearance may range from 2 to 20 mils depending on the process and copper thickness

6. 6 Via requirements Thermal relief vias Power and ground planes offer low thermal resistance and act as ‘heat sinks’ Vias for through-hole mounted components that connect to these planes often use thermal relief via pad patterns on these planes to increase the thermal resistance of the path Examples of thermal relief via pads

7. 7 Electrical effects of vias Capacitance Capacitance between via and ground plane or any other plane where C is capacitance ( pF )  r is relative dielectric constant T is PC board thickness ( inches ) D 1 is diameter of via pad ( inches ) D 2 is diameter of clearance hole ( inches ) this formula assumes a via pad on every layer Typically via capacitance will be relatively small and the primarily impact will be degraded signal rise time

8. 8 Electrical effects of vias Inductance Via inductance is approximated by where L is inductance ( nH ) h is the via length ( inches ) d is the via barrel diameter ( inches ) Note that h  T from the capacitance calculation, h is the length of the via over which the signal passes

9. 9 Electrical effects of vias Example Consider a 100-mil thick FR-4 circuit board (T = 0.1”) with a 20-mil via barrel diameter (d = 0.02”) a 30-mil via pad diameter (D 1 = 0.3”) a 50-mil clearance hole diameter (D 2 = 0.05”) a 20-mil via length to the power plane (h = 0.02”) Find C via, L via, and draw the equivalent circuit

10. 10 Electrical effects of vias Effects of L via, C via Both L via and C via result in increased signal rise time Also L via increases the impedance to the power or ground plane Example: consider 10G GaAs technology, T r = 150 ps, Z o = 50  C via = 1.02 pF, L via = 0.24 nH Rise time degradation Impedance to power plane

11. 11 Vias and return current path Recall that the return current path flows along the path of least impedance (inductance) The proximity effect and inductance cause the return current to flow beneath the signal trace Consider what happens when a signal changes layers through a via The signal follows the signal trace where it can As the signal trace changes layers, and the return current cannot, the inductance is increased  Rise time increases  Crosstalk increases

12. 12 Vias and return current path How to avoid the problem of return-path current failing to shadow the signal current: Keep all high-speed signal traces on its initial layer Practical? May be used for clock signals Restrict signal traces to either side of a particular plane Provide vias between ground planes at points where the signal changes layers (near signal vias) Distribute ground vias everywhere Good for DC purposes also

13. 13 Decoupling capacitors and return path Return current plane jumping at the termination resistor, R T To permit the return current to follow the signal, AC couple V TT plane to GND plane through decoupling capacitor, C Placement of the decoupling capacitor depends on the power/ground plane arrangement

14. 14 Decoupling capacitor placement Using the V TT plane for return path, decoupling capacitors are placed between GND and V TT near the driver chip Recall that in the GaAs package, the silicon chip carrier contained integrated capacitors between V TT and V DDO Otherwise, decoupling capacitors are placed near the terminating resistor between GND and V TT

15. 15 Bypass capacitors Stable reference voltages For CMOS and TTL logic families, the reference voltage (used to determine if an input is HI or LO) is derived from the supply voltage Therefore a noisy supply voltage will produce a noisy reference voltage  bit errors Two questions – How can noise get into the supply voltage? How to reduce this noise? Inductive distribution system can lead to a noisy supply voltage. Transient supply currents result in voltage variations, V = L dI/dt. Similarly, an inductance can result in noise on ground reference.

16. 16 Bypass capacitors Stable reference voltages A solution is to use ground and power planes To reduce the noise, follow these rules: 1. Use low-impedance ground between devices (R + j  L) 2. Use low-impedance power connection between devices 3. Provide low-impedance path between power and ground Clearly power and ground planes satisfy 1 & 2 To achieve 3, need lower impedance by providing alternative path Bypass capacitors provide low-impedance path between power and ground Therefore locate bypass capacitors near every integrated circuit

17. 17 Vias and return current path For ECL and GaAs logic, a reference voltage ( V BB ) is generated on chip and this reference voltage varies only slightly with variations in V supply and temperature To ensure a common reference voltage GaAs logic devices provide a V BBS output and receive as inputs V BB so that all devices share a common threshold level Bypass capacitors are also needed with these devices ECL 2-input OR/NOR

18. 18 Vias and return current path When interfacing ECL with GaAs, the ECL device’s V BB reference level can be shared with the GaAs devices How to determine V BB for ECL circuit? Capacitor used to prevent oscillations V BB is DC ~ -1.3 V While ECL operates by current steering, i.e., it draws about the same current regardless of current state, bypass capacitors are still needed between V EE and GND to provide low-impedance path, otherwise return path goes through the V supply

19. 19 The capacitor Consider a physical capacitor The equivalent circuit for this capacitor is Therefore these can be ignored, for a simplified capacitor model where L s = inductance, lead or self or equvalent series inductance, ESL (H) R s = equivalent series resistance, ESR (  ) C = capacitance (F) typically R diel is large (low loss) R plate is small C lead << C

20. 20 The capacitor Consider the impedance of the capacitor model Z = R s + j(  L s – 1/  C) The capacitor model behaves differently depending on the frequency At low frequencies, Z  R s – j 1/  C b ehaves like an ideal capacitor when R s << 1/  C At resonance frequency, Z = R s purely resistive over narrow frequency range At high frequencies, Z  R s + j  L s b ehaves like an ideal inductor when R s <<  L s

21. 21 The capacitor Composite behavior The frequency, is called the self-resonant frequency or series-resonant frequency (SRF) for f < f o, capacitor behaves capacitively for f > f o, capacitor behaves inductively In our applications (bypass and decoupling capacitors) we are seeking a low-impedance path at high frequencies We need capacitors with self-resonant frequencies above F knee Otherwise, instead of a low-impedance path to a power or ground plane, we have a high-impedance path

22. 22 Capacitor specifications Real capacitors Typical values C :capacitor value ESR ( R s ):1 m  to 1  ESL ( L s ):5 to 10 nH for leaded capacitors < 1 nH for leadless capacitors Sometimes ESR is specified in terms of a dissipation factor ( DF ) DF = R s /X c ratio of energy dissipated to energy stored per cycle DF =  ·R s ·C also includes dielectric loss ( tan  ) DF = 1/Q where Q is the quality factor Consider a 100-pF capacitor with DF of 7  10 -5 at 100 MHz

23. 23 Capacitor specifications Most capacitors have self-resonant frequencies, f o, in the 10s of MHz to 100s of MHz For ECL (T r = 700 ps), F knee = 714 MHz GaAs (T r = 150 ps), F knee = 3.3 GHz To find capacitors with f o in the GHz range, must use chip capacitors Consult RF and microwave component vendors to find these caps Typical capacitor values are relatively small ~ 1000 pF or less at 100 MHz, X c = 1/(2  10 8 10 -9 ) = 1.59  at 1 GHz, X c = 1/(2  10 9 10 -9 ) = 159 m  if f o = 1 GHz, then L s = [(2  f o ) 2 C] -1 = 25 pH

24. 24 Capacitor specifications Other capacitor characteristics Dielectric absorption (DA) Hystersis-like internal charge distribution residual charge or charge density This characteristic is a factor in sample-and-hold circuits not a factor in high-frequency decoupling Peak working voltage (WVDC) Limited by dielectric breakdown characteristics, or power dissipation (heating) at the maximum frequency Variations in capacitor value Due to temperature – temperature coefficient, TC ( ppm/  C ) Due to aging or time (% change ) Due to voltage

25. 25 Capacitor specifications Dielectric materials Capacitance value depends on area (A), spacing between plates (d), relative dielectric constant (  r ) By using various dielectric materials, different properties are obtained The following tables list some common capacitor types using dielectric material as the distinguishing parameter

26. 26 Capacitor specifications from Horowitz and Hill, The Art of Electronics, Cambridge Press, 1989

27. 27 Capacitor specifications from Horowitz and Hill, The Art of Electronics, Cambridge Press, 1989

28. 28 Capacitor specifications from Guinta, S., “Ask The Applications Engineer – 21: Capacitance and Capacitors”, Analog` Dialogue, 30-2, pg. 21, 1996.

29. 29 Capacitor specifications from Guinta, S., “Ask The Applications Engineer – 21: Capacitance and Capacitors”, Analog` Dialogue, 30-2, pg. 21, 1996.

30. 30 Capacitor selection A variety of capacitor values are required in high-speed digital circuit designs — 100 pF to 10s of  F For low-frequency applications (DC to few MHz) — large value capacitors, electrolytic capacitors can be used, however these have a poor frequency response self-resonant frequency ~ few MHz For high-frequency decoupling or bypass applications — capacitors with high self-resonant frequencies are needed these devices physically small chip capacitors are needed The dielectric materials used for high-frequency applications include Material.  r. DF. Barium titanate (BaTiO 3 ) ~ 80000.1 Alumina ~ 95  10 -4 Porcelain ~ 157  10 -5

31. 31 Capacitor selection Clearly barium titanate’s (BaTiO 3 ) large  r makes it a desirable material for capacitor use However its large dissipation factor (low Q) makes it less desirable In addition, BaTiO 3 has other disadvantages large temperature coefficient piezoelectric effects poor aging characteristics porous (moisture and chemical penetration affect performance and reliability) lossy (tan  ) Various blends of BaTiO 3 overcome some of these problems these include Z5U and X7R dielectrics that are discussed in the text Other high-frequency capacitors use porcelain lower DF, non-porous, non-piezoelectric

32. 32 Chip capacitor types Chip capacitors come in two types Single layer — lower capacitor values, higher self-resonant frequency Multi-layer — higher capacitor values, lower self-resonant frequency Single-layer capacitors Multi-layer capacitor

33. 33 Capacitor characteristics

34. 34 Capacitor characteristics

35. 35 Chip capacitor types Parallel resonance In addition to series resonant frequency, parallel resonance frequencies also exist due to internal inductance One way to reduce parallel resonance is to mount capacitor on its side supporting uniform internal current distribution However series resonance (lower freq than parallel resonance) is the limiting factor of interest

36. 36 Chip capacitor types Lower capacitance values  higher resonant frequencies ATC 100 – Case B: C = 1000 pF  f o = 250 MHz C = 4 pF  f o = 3 GHz For the highest resonant frequency, use single layer capacitors C = 1000 pF  f o = 600 MHz Which capacitor should be used? What is the maximum frequency of interest? (F knee ) What X c can be tolerated? Multi-layer capacitor Single-layer capacitor

37. 37 Chip capacitor types A typical circuit board will use a variety of capacitors A group of electrolytic capacitors (e.g., 100 µF, 10 µF, 1 µF ) clustered near where the DC power enters the circuit board Groups of bypass chip capacitors near the integrated circuits Groups of decoupling chip capacitors whose placement depends on the board stackup Appropriate selection of capacitor values can involve time- domain or frequency-domain analysis Time domain: estimate the charge needed to support transient currents during switching events, and size the capacitance accordingly Frequency domain: think of capacitors as filter and select values to provide low impedance path from power supply or power plane over DC to F knee frequency range

38. 38 Chip capacitor types To provide the desired decoupling or bypass operation it may be necessary to use several capacitors in parallel “An array of bypass capacitors is more effective than a single bypass capacitor.” “Within a certain radius, all the bypass capacitors will act as if connected in parallel, lowering the power-to-ground impedance. The effective radius within which this effect works is equal to l/12 where l is the electrical length of the rising edge. All capacitors within the diameter of l/6 act in concert as a lumped circuit.”

39. 39 Chip capacitor types Assuming the decoupling capacitor passes signal components with frequencies above 10 kHz, what path do return currents follow to close the loop for signal components below 10 kHz (e.g., 1 kHz, DC)?

40. 40 Chip capacitor types Proper bypass capacitor placement

41. 41 Chip capacitor types Proper bypass capacitor placement

42. 42 Chip capacitor types Proper bypass capacitor placement

43. 43 Chip capacitor types Broadband capacitors are relatively new on the market These offer low impedance over a broad frequency range Achieved by integrating various capacitors within a single package 520L: C = 10 nF, 160 kHz to 16 GHz 530L: C = 100 nF, 16 kHz to 18 GHz 545L: C = 100 nF, 16 kHz to 40 GHz 550L: C = 100 nF, 16 kHz to 40 GHz

44. 44 Summary Vias serve a variety of purposes in high-speed digital circuit boards Via parameters are driven by manufacturing and reliability issues The capacitive effects of vias are less significant than inductive effects Via placement can play an important role in return current path Decoupling capacitors are used to shunt current to the return path Bypass capacitors are used to suppress noise on power and ground Real capacitors have resistance and inductance Real capacitors have a self-resonant frequency (SRF) Below the SRF it behaves capacitively Above the SRF it behaves inductively Groups of capacitors are used to provide a capacitive response over a broad range of frequencies