2. Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

3. Piaget’s Cognitive- Developmental Perspective
In order to understand children, we must understand how they think because thinking influences all of behavior.
Children and adults are active explorers who learn by interacting with the world, building their own understanding of everyday phenomena, and applying it to adapt to the world around them.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

4. Cognitive-Developmental Concepts
Schemas
Concepts, ideas, and ways of interacting on the world
Cognitive development is the result of:
Assimilation
Integrating a new experience into a preexisting schema
Accommodation
Changing a schema by adapting and modifying it in light of the new information
LO 5.1. Define cognitive schemas, and explain the processes by which infants and toddlers modify their cognitive schemas.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

5. Cognitive Equilibrium
A balance between the processes of assimilation and accommodation
When assimilation and accommodation are balanced, individuals are neither incorporating new information into their schemas nor changing their schemas in light of new information.
LO 5.1. Define cognitive schemas, and explain the processes by which infants and toddlers modify their cognitive schemas.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

6. Cognitive Disequilibrium
A mismatch between schemas and the world
Occurs more frequently than cognitive equilibrium
Leads to cognitive growth
The mismatch leads to confusion and discomfort, which in turn motivate children to modify their cognitive schemas so that their view of the world matches reality
LO 5.1. Define cognitive schemas, and explain the processes by which infants and toddlers modify their cognitive schemas.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

7. Substages of Sensorimotor Reasoning
Infants learn about the world through their senses and motor skills.
Six substages in which cognition develops from reflexes to intentional action to symbolic representation.
Reflexes (Birth -1 month)
Primary circular reactions (1-4 months)
Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)
Coordination of secondary schemas (8-12 months)
Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months)
Mental representation (18-24 months)
LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

8. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
Substage 1: Reflexes
Birth – 1 month
Newborns use their reflexes to react to stimuli they experience
LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

9. Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions
1 – 4 months
Infants begin to make accidental discoveries.
Circular reactions are the repetition of an action and its response.
Primary circular reactions consist of repeating actions that begin by chance or by accident involving the parts of the body that produce pleasurable or interesting results.
LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

10. Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions
4 – 8 months
Repetitions of actions that trigger responses in the external environment, outside of the baby’s body
The patterns of repetition include objects and are oriented toward making interesting events occur in the infant’s environment.
LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

11. Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Schemas
8 – 12 months
Represents true means-end behaviors and signifies the beginning of intentional behavior
Infants purposefully coordinate two secondary circular reactions and apply them in new situations to achieve a goal.
Object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist outside of sensory awareness, occurs in substage 4.
LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning.
LO 5.3. Explain the development of object permanence during the sensorimotor period.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

12. Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions
12-18 months
Infants engage in active, purposeful trial-and-error exploration to search for new discoveries; they vary their actions to see how the changes affect the outcomes.
Piaget described infants as “little scientists” during this period because they move from intentional behavior to systematic exploration.
LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

13. Substage 6: Mental Representation
18-24 months
Infants develop representational thought, the ability to use symbols such as words and mental pictures to represent objects and actions in memory.
For example, infants can engage in deferred imitation, imitating actions of an absent model.
A transition between the sensorimotor and preoperational reasoning stages.
LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

14. VIDEO CASE Object Permanence
7-month-old Nicho and 10-month-old Damian illustrate developmental changes in infants’ understanding of object permanence. At 7 months of age, Nicho does not search for the hidden horse. However, Damian successfully locates the horse, even when presented with the A-not-B search task.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

15. Table 5.1: Substages of Sensorimotor Reasoning
LO 5.2. Summarize infants’ progression through six substages of sensorimotor reasoning.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

16. Research on Object Permanence: Violation-of-Expectation Method
A task in which a stimulus appears to violate physical laws
If the infant looks longer at the unexpected event, it suggest that he or she is surprised by it, is aware of physical properties of objects, and can mentally represent them.
LO 5.3. Explain the development of object permanence during the sensorimotor period.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

17. Research on Object Permanence: A-Not-B Error
The A-not-B error occurs when infants are able to uncover a toy hidden behind a barrier, yet when they observe the toy moved from behind one barrier (Place A) to another (Place B), they look for the toy in the first place it was hidden.
LO 5.3. Explain the development of object permanence during the sensorimotor period.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

18. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
Figure 5.3: A-Not-B Error
LO 5.3. Explain the development of object permanence during the sensorimotor period.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

19. Research on Imitation: Deferred Imitation Tasks
The ability to repeat an act performed some time ago
Piaget believed that, because infants lack mental representation abilities, infants under 18 months cannot engage in deferred imitation.
Laboratory research on facial imitation has found that 6-week-old infants are capable of deferred imitation.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

20. Core Knowledge Perspective
Infants are born with several innate knowledge systems or core domains of thought that enable early rapid learning and adaptation.
LO 5.4. Discuss the core knowledge perspective as it applies to infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

21. Information Processing
Cognition is a set of interrelated components that permit people to process information.
To notice, take in, manipulate, store, and retrieve it
LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

22. Mental Stores in Information Processing: Sensory Memory
Holds incoming sensory information in its original form
Information fades from sensory memory quickly if it is not processed (even as quick as fractions of a second).
Newborn sensory memory is much shorter in duration than adults’ memory.
LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

23. Mental Stores in Information Processing: Working Memory
Working memory is also called short-term memory.
Holds and processes information that is being “worked on” in some way
Manipulating, encoding, or retrieving information
Responsible for maintaining and processing information used in many complex cognitive tasks
LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood.
Working memory is “worked on” through manipulating information (considering, comprehending), encoding information (transforming into a memory), or retrieving information (recalling).
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

24. Important Part of Working Memory
Central executive
A control processor that directs the flow of information and regulates cognitive activities such as attention, action, and problem solving
LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

25. Mental Stores in Information Processing: Long-Term Memory
An unlimited store that holds information indefinitely
Information is not manipulated or processed in long-term memory; it is simply stored until it is retrieved to manipulate in working memory.
LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

26. Figure 5.4: Information Processing System
LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

27. Information Processing Skill: Attention
The ability to direct one’s awareness
Infant attention is often studied using:
Preferential looking procedures
Measuring the length of time infants look at two stimuli
Habituation procedures
Measuring the length of time it takes infants to habituate to looking at a nonchanging stimulus
By about 10 weeks of age, infants show gains in attention
LO 5.6. Describe developmental changes in infants’ capacities for attention and memory.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

28. Information Processing Skill: Memory
The ability to focus and switch attention is critical for selecting information to process in working memory.
Infants have basic memory capacities common to children and adults, but they are most likely to remember events when they take place in familiar contexts and when the infants are actively engaged; emotional engagement also enhances infants’ memory.
LO 5.6. Describe developmental changes in infants’ capacities for attention and memory.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

29. Information Processing Skill: Categorization
Grouping different stimuli from a common class
An adaptive mental process that allows for:
Organizing storage of information in memory
Efficient retrieval of that information
Capacity to respond with familiarity to new stimuli from a common class
Infants naturally categorize information.
LO 5.7. Examine how infants’ categorization skills change with development.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

30. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
Table 5.2: Summary of Changes in Information Processing Skills During Infancy
LO 5.5. Identify the parts of the information processing system and its function in infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

31. Testing Approach to Intelligence
The most often used standardized measure of infant intelligence is the Bayley Scales of Infant Development III (BSID-III)
Appropriate for infants from 1 month through 42 months of age
LO 5.8. Discuss how intelligence is measured in infancy and findings regarding infant intelligence.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

32. Figure 5.6: Bayley-III Scales (BSID-III)
LO 5.7. Examine how infants’ categorization skills change with development.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

33. The Bayley Scales of Infant Development III
Five scales
Motor scale (Infant response)
Cognitive scale (infant response)
Language scale (infant response)
Social-emotional scale (parent response)
Adaptive behavior (parent response)
The BSID-III provides a comprehensive profile of an infant’s current functioning.
LO 5.8. Discuss how intelligence is measured in infancy and findings regarding infant intelligence.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

34. Information Processing Approach to Intelligence
Infants who process information more efficiently are thought to acquire knowledge more quickly.
Information processing capacities – such as attention, memory, and processing speed – in infancy predict cognitive ability and intelligence through late adolescence.
LO 5.8. Discuss how intelligence is measured in infancy and findings regarding infant intelligence.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

35. Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.
Language Development
Gaining the ability to use words to represent objects, experience, thoughts, and feelings permits children to think and to communicate with others in increasingly flexible and adaptive ways.
Receptive language
What babies can understand
Exceeds their productive language
Productive language
What babies can produce themselves
LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

36. Language Development: Prelinguistic Communication
Crying
Cooing (between 2 and 3 months)
Deliberate vowel sounds
For example: Ahhhh, ohhhh, eeeeeeee
Babbling (6 months of age)
Repeating strings of consonants and vowels
For example: Ba-ba-ba-ba and ma-ma-ma
Universal
LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

37. Language Development: First Words
About one year of age
Holophrases
One-word expressions to express a complete thought
A first word might be a complete word or a syllable.
LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

38. Language Development: Learning Words
Fast mapping
A process of quickly acquiring and retaining a word after hearing it applied a few times
Improves with age
Accounts for the naming explosion (vocabulary spurt)
A period of rapid vocabulary learning that occurs between 16 and 24 months of age
LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

39. Language Development: Two Kinds of Mistakes in Learning Words
Underextension
Applying a word more narrowly than it is usually applied so that the word’s use is restricted to a single object
For example, ball might refer only to footballs but not to the general class of balls
Overextension
Applying a word too broadly
For example, cow might refer to all farm animals
LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

40. Language Development: Two-Word Utterances
Begins around 21 months of age
Telegraphic speech
Speaking like a telegram, only including a few essential words
Universal among toddlers
LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

41. Table 5.3: Language Milestones
LO 5.9. Explain patterns of language development from birth through infancy and toddlerhood.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

42. Theories of Language Development
Learning theory and language acquisition
Language is learned through operant conditioning: reinforcement and punishment.
Nativist theory and language acquisition
The human brain has an innate capacity to learn language.
Language acquisition device (LAD) – an innate facilitator of language and storehouse of rules that apply to all human languages (universal grammar).
LO Contrast learning, nativist, and interactionist perspectives on language.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

43. Theories of Language Development (Continued)
Interactionist perspective on language acquisition
Language development is a complex process that is influenced by both maturation and context.
LO Contrast learning, nativist, and interactionist perspectives on language.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

44. Biological Contributions to Language Acquisition
Brain (left hemisphere)
Broca’s area – controls the ability to use language for expression
Wernicke’s area – responsible for language comprehension
LO Contrast learning, nativist, and interactionist perspectives on language.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

45. Contextual Contributions to Language Acquisition
Canonical babbling
A type of babbling with well-formed syllables that sounds like language
Parents tune in and treat the vocalizations in a new way.
Parent responsiveness to infants’ vocalizations predicts:
The size of infants’ vocabularies
The diversity of infants’ communications
The timing of language milestones
LO Contrast learning, nativist, and interactionist perspectives on language.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

46. Contextual Contributions (Continued)
Infant-directed speech
Also known as “motherese”
The use of shorter words and sentences
Higher an more varied pitch
Repetitions
A slower rate
Longer pauses
Expansions – Parents enrich versions of the child’s statement.
Recast – Children’s sentences are restated into new grammatical forms.
LO Contrast learning, nativist, and interactionist perspectives on language.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.

47. VIDEO CASE Developmental Milestones: Parent Views
Milestones of development are important not just for children, but for parents. Lara describes milestones in her 2-year-old’s development. Parents’ joy in their children influences their children’s development.
Kuther, Lifespan Development. © 2017, SAGE Publications.