2. This lecture will help you understand:
Resource management
Forests and forest loss
Forest contributions and loss
Forest management and harvest methods
Agricultural land use
The major federal land management agencies
Park and preserve design

3. Central Case: Battling over the last big trees
In 1993, protestors blocked loggers from cutting ancient trees on Vancouver Island, British Columbia
Most of Canada’s old-growth temperate rainforest is already gone
20% of the jobs depends on the timber industry
Both sides struck a deal allowing environmentally friendly practices and encouraging ecotourism

4. Resources are vital to us
We need to carefully manage the limited resources we take from the natural world
Resource management = the practice of harvesting potentially renewable resources in ways that do not deplete them
Resource managers are influenced by political, economic, and social factors
A key question is whether to focus on the resource of interest or to look more broadly at the entire environmental system

5. Natural resources are vital to us
We need resources
Soils: agriculture, natural communities
Water: drinking, agriculture, wildlife
Wildlife and fisheries: game, nongame, and marine species
Rangeland: livestock
Minerals: mined nonrenewable resources

6. Maximum sustainable yield
Maximum sustainable yield = aims to achieve the maximum amount of resource extraction
Without depleting the resource from one harvest to the next
Populations grow most rapidly at an intermediate size
Population size is about half its carrying capacity
Managed populations are well below what they would naturally be
Reducing populations so drastically affects other species and can change the entire ecosystem

7. Ecosystem-based management
Ecosystem-based management = managing the harvesting of resources to minimize impact on the ecosystems and ecological processes
Carefully managing ecologically important areas
Considering patterns at the landscape level
Protecting some forested areas
It is challenging for managers to determine how to implement this type of management
Ecosystems are complex, and our understanding of how they operate is limited

8. Adaptive management evolves and improves
Adaptive management = systematically testing different management approaches and aiming to improve methods
Monitoring results and adjusting methods as needed
A fusion of science and management
Time-consuming and complicated
The 1994 Northwest Forest Plan resolved disputes between loggers and preservationists over the remaining old-growth temperate rainforests in the continental U.S.
Allowed limited logging
Protected species and ecosystems
Science-guided management in Oregon, Washington, and California

9. Forest Management Forests cover over 30% of Earth’s land surface
Provide habitat, maintain soil, air, and water quality, and play key roles in biogeochemical cycles
Provide wood for fuel, construction, paper production
Foresters, professionals who manage forests through the practice of forestry, must balance ecosystem services with demand for wood products

10. Ecological value of forests
One of the richest ecosystems for biodiversity
Structural complexity houses great biodiversity
A forest provides many ecosystem services
Stabilizes soil and prevents erosion
Slows runoff, lessens flooding, purifies water
Stores carbon, releases oxygen, moderates climate

11. Economic value of forests
Benefits: fuel, shelter, transportation (boats), paper
Helped society achieve a high standard of living
Logging Locations:
Boreal Forests: Canada, Russia
Rainforests: Brazil, Indonesia
Conifer Forests/Pine Plantations: U.S.
In 2005, over 1/3 all forests were designated for timber production

12. Demand for wood leads to deforestation
Deforestation = the clearing and loss of forests
Alters landscapes and ecosystems
Degrades soil
Causes species decline and extinction
Ruins civilizations
Adds carbon dioxide to the air
Developing countries boost their economies and get land for their growing populations by logging forests

13. Deforestation in America and Canada
Deforestation propelled the westward expansion and growth of America and Canada
Eastern deciduous forests were the first to be logged for farms and to build cities (i.e., Chicago)
Timber companies moved south to the Ozarks and west to the Rockies

14. Loggers moved westward, searching for large trees
Primary forest = natural forest uncut by people
Little remained by the 20th century
Second-growth trees = grown to partial maturity after old-growth timber has been cut

15. Loggers lose their jobs with deforestation
As each region is deforested, the timber industry declines and moves on
Local loggers lose their jobs
Once the remaining ancient trees of North America are gone, loggers will once again lose jobs
Companies will simply move to another area
The scarcity of remaining old-growth trees fuels scientific concerns and empassions environmentalists

16. Deforestation is proceeding rapidly worldwide
Uncut tropical forests still remain in many developing countries
Technology allows for even faster exploitation
Deforestation is rapid in places such as Brazil and Indonesia
Developing countries are so desperate for economic development, they have few logging restrictions
Short-term economic benefits go to foreign multinational corporations
Governments often help companies, at the expense of native people

17. “Timber famine” fears spurred forest protection
National forest system = a system of forest reserves and public lands
To grow trees, produce timber, protect watersheds, and ensure future timber supplies
Resulted from depletion of U.S. forests and fear of a “timber famine”
77 million ha (191 million acres); 8% of the U.S. land area
The U.S. Forest Service was established in 1905
Manage forests for the greatest good of the greatest number in the long run, including logging

18. Federal agencies own land in the U.S.

19. Timber is extracted from public and private land
Timber is extracted by private companies, even on public land
Forest Service employees plan and manage timber sales and build roads
The companies log and sell the timber for profit

20. Most logging occurs on private land
But, millions of cubic feet per year are still logged from national forests
Timber harvesting remains stable in developed countries
Timber companies manage forests according to the maximum sustained yield approach
Management on public lands reflects economic forces, along with social and political ones
These change over time
Public concern, changing management philosophies and economics caused harvests to decrease

21. Plantation forestry The timber industry focuses on timber plantations
Fast-growing species
Monocultures
Even-aged trees = all trees are the same age
Trees are cut at the end of the rotation time and replanted
Plantations are crops, not functional forests
Some harvesting methods maintain uneven-aged (mixed ages of trees and species) tree stands

22. Harvesting timber: clear-cutting
All trees in the area are cut
Most cost-efficient
Greatest impact on forest ecosystems
May mimic some natural forms of disturbance
Destroy entire communities
Soil erosion
Public is outraged over this type of harvesting

23. Harvesting: other methods
Seed-tree cutting = a small number of seed-producing trees are left standing to reseed the area
Shelterwood cutting = a small number of trees are left to provide shelter for the seedlings
Selection systems = only select trees are cut
Single tree selection = widely spaced trees are cut
Group tree selection = small patches of trees are cut
All methods disturb habitat
Change forest structure and composition
Increase erosion, siltation, runoff, flooding, landslides

24. Public forests can be managed for many things
Increased public awareness caused people to urge changed forest management
For recreation, wildlife and ecosystem integrity, instead of logging
Critics protested federal subsidies of logging companies
Multiple use policy = national forests were to be managed for recreation, habitat, minerals and other uses
In reality, timber production is the primary use
The Forest Service loses $100 million/yr by selling timber below cost

25. Harvesting forests

26. The National Forest Management Act (1976)
Mandated that plans for renewable resource management had to be drawn up for every national forest
Guidelines included:
Consideration of both economic and environmental factors
Provision for species diversity
Ensuring research and monitoring
Permitting only sustainable harvests
Protection of soils and wetlands
Assessing all impacts before logging to protect resources

27. New forestry management is under attack
Calls for timber cuts that mimic natural disturbances
Harvesting methods are based on ecosystem approaches
The Bush administration has rolled back these regulations
Freed managers from requirements of the Act
Loosened environmental protections
Repealed President Clinton’s roadless rule, which protected 31% of national forests from road building
California, Oregon, and New Mexico have sued the government to reinstate the roadless rule

28. Fire policy also stirs controversy
For over 100 years, the Forest Service suppressed all fires
But many ecosystems depend on fires
Fire suppression allows woody accumulation, which produces kindling for future fires
Which are much worse
Housing development near forests and climate change will increase fire risk

29. Prescribed fires are misunderstood
Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of forests under carefully controlled conditions
Effective
May get out of control
Impeded by public misunderstanding and political interference
Healthy Forests Restoration Act (2003) = promotes removal of small trees, underbrush and dead trees
Passed in response to forest fires

30. Salvage logging Removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance
Seems logical, but is really destructive
Snags (standing dead trees) provide nesting cavities for countless animals
Removing timber from recently burned areas increases erosion and soil damage
Promotes future fires
Increases commercial logging in national forests
Decreases oversight and public participation

31. Sustainable forestry is gaining ground
Sustainable forestry certification = only products produced sustainably can be certified
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) have different standards
Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably produced timber
Companies such as Home Depot sell sustainable wood
Encourages better logging practices

32. Agricultural land use
Agriculture covers 38% of the Earths’ terrestrial surface
26% supports pasture, 12% supports crops
The most widespread type of land use
Causes tremendous environmental impacts
Governments spend billions of dollars on subsidies
Proponents say farmers need this insurance against bad years
Critics say farmers should buy their own insurance

33. Wetlands have been drained for farming
Many crop lands grow on former wetlands
Governments have encouraged wetland draining
Promote settlement and farming
Transferred land to states
Stimulated draining
Less than half the wetlands remain

34. Perspectives on wetlands are changing
Many people have a new view of wetlands
Not worthless swamps, but valuable ecosystems
Demanded regulations to safeguard remaining wetlands
But, because of loopholes, wetlands are still being lost
Conservation Reserve Program (1985) subsidized farmers to take highly erodable land out of production
Turn it into wildlife habitat

35. Livestock graze one-fourth of Earth’s land
Grazing can be sustainable if done carefully and at low intensity
Bureau of Land Management (BLM) = owns and manages most U.S. rangeland
Nation’s single largest landowner: 106 million ha (261 million acres) across 12 western states
Ranchers can graze cattle on BLM lands for low fees
Low fees encourage overgrazing
Ranchers and environmentalists have joined to preserve ranchland against development and urban sprawl

36. Management of the American West
Overexploitation of resources caused great damage to the American West
Poor farming practices, overgrazing, farming arid lands
John Wesley Powell in the late 1800s called for agencies to base management on science
Farming Western lands had to account for arid conditions
His ideas were ignored, contributing to failures such as the Dust Bowl of the 1930s

37. Parks and reserves
Reasons for establishing parks and reserves include:
Monumentalism = preserving areas with enormous, beautiful or unusual features, such as the Grand Canyon
Offer recreational value to tourists, hikers, fishers, hunters and others
Protect areas with utilitarian benefits, such as clean drinking water
Use sites that are otherwise economically not valuable and are therefore easy to protect
Preservation of biodiversity

38. Federal parks and reserves began in the U.S.
National parks = public lands protected from resource extraction and development
Open to nature appreciation and recreation
Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872
The Antiquities Act of 1906
The president can declare selected public lands as national monuments

39. The National Park Service (NPS)
Created in 1916 to administer parks and monuments
388 sites totaling 32 million ha (72 million acres)
Includes national historic sites, national recreation areas, national wild and scenic rivers
273 million visitors in 2006

40. National Wildlife Refuges
Begun in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt
37 million ha (91 million acres) in 541 sites
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administers refuges
Management ranges from preservation to manipulation
Wildlife havens
Allows hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, photography, education

41. Wilderness areas
Wilderness areas = area is off-limits to development of any kind
Open to the public for hiking, nature study, etc.
Must have minimal impact on the land
Necessary to ensure that humans don’t occupy and modify all natural areas
Established within federal lands
Overseen by the agencies that administer those areas

42. Not everyone supports land set-asides
Restriction of activities in wilderness areas generated opposition to U.S. land protection policies
Some western states want resource extraction and development
The wise-use movement = a coalition of individuals and industries that oppose environmental protection
Protecting private property, transferring federal lands to state or private hands, promoting motorized recreation on public lands
Farmers, ranchers, loggers, mineral and fossil fuel industries

43. Wilderness protection has been weakened
President George W. Bush has weakened wilderness protection
Federal agencies have shifted policies and enforcement
Away from preservation and conservation
Toward recreation and resource extraction

44. Nonfederal entities also protect land
Each U.S. state and Canadian province has agencies that manage resources
So do counties and municipalities
Land trusts = local or regional organizations that purchase land to protect it
The Nature Conservancy is the world’s largest land trust
Trusts protect 4.1 million ha (10.2 million acres)
Jackson Hole, Wyoming is protected by a land trust

45. Parks and reserves are increasing internationally
Many nations have established national parks
Benefit from ecotourism
Protected areas now cover 9.6% of the world’s land area
Parks do not always receive necessary funding
Paper parks = Areas protected on paper but not in reality
World heritage sites = protected areas that fall under national sovereignty but are designated or managed by the United Nations
830 sites across 184 countries

46. Transboundary and peace parks
Transboundary park = an area of protected land overlapping national borders
For example, Waterton-Glacier National Parks in the U.S. and Canada
Peace parks = transboundary reserves that help ease tensions by acting as buffers between nations
Biosphere reserves = land with exceptional biodiversity
Couple preservation with sustainable development

47. Biosphere reserves have several zones
This can be a win-win situation for everyone

48. Habitat fragmentation threatens species
Contiguous habitat is chopped into small pieces
Species suffer

49. The SLOSS dilemma Which is better to protect species?
A Single Large Or Several Small reserves?
Depends on the species: tigers vs. insects
Corridors = protected land that allows animals to travel between islands of protected habitat
Animals get more resources
Enables gene flow between populations

50. Conclusion
Resources must be managed sustainably to avoid overexploitation and overharvesting
Many nations have established federal and regional agencies to manage publicly held land and natural resources
Resource management policies first emphasized extraction then shifted into sustained yield and multiple use
Public support for land preservation resulted in parks, wilderness areas and other reserves

51. QUESTION: Review
If an area is managed for Maximum Sustained Yield, and the area can support 100 organisms, how many organisms will be allowed to remain in the area?
a) 100
b) 75
c) 50
d) 25
Answer: c

52. QUESTION: Review
Which of the following is not part of the ecological value of forests?
a) Erosion prevention
b) Decreased flooding
c) Carbon storage
d) Climate moderation
e) All of the above are values of forests
Answer: e

53. QUESTION: Review
Which of the following statement regarding forest management is false?
a) Deforestation in the U.S. has occurred for centuries
b) Timber companies move on after an area is deforested
c) Tropical countries have lost the majority of forests so timber companies won’t be going there
d) Governments in developing countries help logging companies at the expense of native people
Answer: c

54. QUESTION: Review Which agency manages national forests?
a) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
b) U.S. Forest Service
c) Bureau of Land Management
d) National Park Service
Answer: b

55. QUESTION: Review Tree harvesting by clear-cutting….
a) Cuts all trees in an area, leaving only stumps
b) Cuts most trees, but leaves some to produce seeds
c) Cuts most trees, but leaves some to shelter seedlings
d) Produces uneven-aged tree stands
Answer: a

56. QUESTION: Review
The National Forest Management Act of 1976 guidelines included all of the following, except:
a) Consideration of economic factors
b) Soil protection
c) Increased harvesting under times of economic stress
d) Provisions for species diversity
Answer: c

57. QUESTION: Review The Conservation Reserve Program:
a) Pays farmers subsidies to drain wetlands
b) Pays farmers subsidies to protect wetlands
c) Pays farmers to increase livestock on BLM lands
d) Encourages cities to drain wetlands for expansion
Answer: b

58. QUESTION: Review “Monumentalism” refers to:
a) Protecting very large trees
b) Protecting areas with large buildings
c) Growing the largest crops possible
d) Preserving lands with enormous or beautiful features
Answer: d

59. QUESTION: Review Which areas are off limits to all development?
a) National forests
b) National parks
c) Wilderness areas
d) BLM lands
Answer: c

60. QUESTION: Review How does habitat fragmentation threaten species?
a) Large lands are chopped into small pieces
b) Small lands are not protected
c) Species are able to find each other more easily
d) It does not threaten species
Answer: a

61. QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
Which type of land ownership has more trees being cut than growing?
National forests
Other public forests
Forest industry land
Other private land
Answer: c

62. QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
Which area of the world had the largest increase in paper consumption between 1990 and 2000?
Africa
Asia
Europe
North America
Answer: b

63. QUESTION: Viewpoints
Should people be allowed to build homes alongside national parks that periodically experience fire?
Yes, people should be allowed to build wherever they want
Yes, but only if they carry enough insurance
No, the government should buy the land as a buffer zone
I don’t care, I don’t own a home in a fire-prone area
Answer: any

64. QUESTION: Viewpoints
Should farmers and ranchers get federal subsidies to protect their land?
Absolutely yes; we pay subsidies for everything else
Maybe, if the farmer earns below a certain amount of money
No; all subsidies are bad, regardless of their goals
I would agree, if I could get a subsidy
Answer: any