1. Tissues, Glands and Membranes Chapter 4
Anatomy & Physiology 1
Tissues, Glands and Membranes
Chapter 4

2. Tissues Tissues – groups of cells Histology – is the study of tissues
Similar in structure (form)
Arranged in a characteristic pattern
Specialized for the performance of specific task
Tissues can be hard (bone), soft (muscle), or even liquid (blood).
Histology – is the study of tissues
shows that the form, arrangement, and composition of cells in different tissues account for their properties.
Hints different classification

3. Tissue Classification
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue

4. Function & Structure of Epithelium
Forms a protective covering for the body
Forms membranes, glands and ducts
Lines body cavities and hollow organs
Structure
Tightly packed to protect underlying tissue or to form barriers
Repairs itself quickly
Can become stronger if subjected to wear & tear – i.e. calluses in skin

5. Structure of Epithelial Tissue
Classification by
shape
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
arrangement
Simple
Stratified
Pseudostratified

6. Epithelial Cell Structure
3 different shapes
Squamous - flat
Cuboidal - square
Columnar - long and narrow
3 Different layers
Simple – single layer
Stratified – many layers
Pseudostratified – staggered, so appear to be multilayered but are not
Transitional epithelium
Capable of great expansion but returns to original size - bladder

7. Special Functions of Epithelial Tissue
Produce secretions
Digestive juices
Sweat
Goblet Cells - epithelial cells in respiratory & digestive tract that produce mucus
Protect by trapping particles
Secrete mucus
Cilia projections trap particles
Glands – an organ specialized to produce a substance that is sent out to other parts of the body
Manufactures secretions from materials removed from blood

8. (A) The lining of the trachea showing cilia and goblet cells that secrete mucus. (B) The lining of the intestine showing goblet cells.

9. Glands
A gland is an organ specialized to produce a substance that is sent out to other parts of the body.
Glands are divided in to two categories based on how they release their secretions, i.e., whether they secrete through ducts or secrete directly into the bloodstream:
Exocrine glands
Endocrine glands

10. Types of Glands: Exocrine
Have tubes or ducts to carry secretions away from glands
Effective in a limited area near the source
Structure
Single cell – goblet
Multiple cells
Simple tubular - intestine
Branched tubular - stomach
Coiled tubular - skin
Simple saclike - skin
Compound formation of tubes and sacs – mouth
Examples
Gastrointestinal glands secrete digestive juices
Sebaceous glands in skin produce oil
Lachrymal glands produce tears

11. Types of Glands: Endocrine
Thyroid Gland Tissue
Ductless glands that secrete directly into the blood
Hormones have effects on specific target tissues
Structure – an extensive network of capillaries
Examples
Pituitary
Thyroid
Adrenal

12. Connective Tissue
Supporting fabrics everywhere in the body
Connective tissue is the most abundant, widely distributed, and varied type.
It includes fibrous tissues, fat, cartilage, bone, bone marrow, and blood.

13. Function & Structure of Connective Tissue
Supporting fabric of all parts of the body
Bind other organs together, hold organs in place, cushion them, and fill space.
Structure
Matrix - large amounts of nonliving material between cells
Fibers – generally give matrix some structure

14. Classification of Connective Tissue
Categorized according to distribution and function and listed in order of increasing hardness:
Circulating connective tissue
Generalized connective tissue
Structural connective tissue

15. Circulating connective tissue
Consists of fluid
Its cells are suspended in a liquid environment.
Two types:
Blood: circulates in blood vessels
Lymph: a fluid derived from blood that circulates in lymphatic vessels.
For more see chapters 13 and 16

16. Generalized connective tissue
It supports and protects structures
Cells called fibroblasts produce the various fibres in all connective tissue.
Two types:
Loose:
Cells loosely held together in a semi-liquid matrix
Areolar tissue: found in membranes, around vessels and organs, between muscles, and under the skin.
Adipose tissue: contains cells (adipocytes) that are able to store large amounts of fat
Reticular tissue: lymphoid tissues such as lymph nodes, spleen. Forms internal framework of lymphoid organs
Dense:
Cells held together with densely packed fibrous matrix
Irregular; mostly collagenous fibers in random arrangement. Examples: membranes, capsules
Regular; mostly collagenous fibers in parallel alignment. Examples: tendons, ligaments
Elastic; elastic fibers. Examples: vocal cords, blood vessel walls

17. Circulating and generalized (loose) connective tissue
Which of these tissues has the most fibers?
• Which of these tissues is modified for storage?

18. Structural connective tissue
Mainly associated with the skeleton
Made up of:
Cartilage
Formed by cells called chondrocytes
Has 3 forms
Hyaline cartilage also called gristle, makes up
the tip of the nose and reinforces the larynx (“ voice-box”) and the trachea (“wind-pipe”).
Fibrocartilage: found in knee joint, between segments of the spine, between the pubic bones of the hip. Cushions, protects
Elastic cartilage: spring back to shape after bent; found in the outer portion of the ear and parts of larnyx
Bone
Formed by cells called osteoblasts
Osseous tissue
Bone marrow

19. Generalized (dense) and structural connective tissue.

20. Muscle Tissue Function Structure - cells are long thread-like fibers
Produce movement through contraction of its cells
Structure - cells are long thread-like fibers
Skeletal muscle
Cardiac muscle
Smooth muscle
After injury
repairs itself only with difficulty
Often replaced with scar tissue

21. 3 Types of Muscle Tissue Skeletal Muscle
Voluntary – can consciously contract skeletal muscle
Function - moves the body by working with tendons and bones
Structure –
Very large cells
More than one nucleus
Striated (striped): a pattern of dark and light banding
Cardiac Muscle (myocardium), intercalated disks
Involuntary – contracts without conscious thought
Function – produces regular contractions, causing the heart to pump blood. Produces the regular contraction known as heartbeats
Cells are branched and interwoven
Membranes between cells also act to interconnect cells
Smooth Muscle
Involuntary
Function contract to produce movement of fluids or substances
Walls of hollow organs (ventral body cavities-visceral organs) and vessels;

24. Nervous Tissue Function – control and communications Structure
Brain – control center of body
Spinal Cord – information superhighway
Nerves – direct communication between brain and body
Structure
Neuron – nerve cell
Neuroglia – support cell

25. Basic unit of nervous tissue Cell body Fibers Dendrite Axon Nerve
Neurons
Basic unit of nervous tissue
Cell body
Fibers
Dendrite
Axon
Nerve

26. Neurons Neurons – Nerve cell Cell Body – transmits nerve impulses
Dendrite – branched tail that receives impulses for cell body
Axon – single tail that sends impulses away from cell body
Can be several feet long
Myelin – coating that Insulates axon
Groups of myelinated fibers form “white matter,” named for the color of the myelin
Some axons are unmyelinated , as are all dendrites and all cell bodies. These areas appear gray in color
Brain has large collections of cell bodies and thus unmyelinated fibers >> Brain is termed gray matter

27. Neuroglia Nerve support cell Greek word glia meaning “glue.”
Support and protect nerves from harmful substances
Remove foreign material & debris form the myelin insulation
See chapters 9 and 10

28. Membranes Thin sheets of tissue Function Cover a surface
Divide partitions
Line a hallow organ or body cavity
Anchor an organ
Structure
Epithelial membranes - layered
Serous membranes
Mucous membranes
Cutaneous membranes - skin
Connective tissue membranes
Synovial membranes
Meninges
Superficial fascia
Deep fascia
Fibrous pericardium
Periosteum
Perichondrium

29. Epithelial Membranes – Structure
Layered
Outer epithelial layer
Strengthened by connective tissue layer and sometimes smooth muscle layer
Closely packed cells
Manufacture secretions
Protect deeper layers from invasion

30. Serous Membranes aka Mesothelium
Structure
Layered - One layer lines the walls of a body cavity and then it folds in on itself to line the outermost layer of the organ
Although in 2 layers, the membrane is continuous
Parietal layer – attaches to wall of body cavity
Visceral layer – attaches to organ
Does not connect with the outside of the body
Function
Secretes a thin watery fluid called serous fluid that decreases friction on organs during movement
3 Types
Pleura –line thoracic cavity & lungs
Serous pericardium – line the heart
Peritoneum – abdomen & abdominal organs – largest serous membrane

31. Figure 4-9 Organization of serous membranes
Figure 4-9 Organization of serous membranes. (A) An organ fits into a serous membrane like
a fist punching into a soft balloon. (B) The outer layer of a serous membrane is the parietal layer.
The inner layer is the visceral layer. The fibrous pericardium reinforces the parietal pericardium.

32. Mucous Membranes aka Mucosa
Structure
Secrete mucus, a thick sticky substance
Form extensive continuous linings with organs that are connected with the outside of the body such as digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems
Function depends on location
Respiratory
Mucus traps particles and cilia force particles out of body
Digestive
Mucus protects other organs from stomach acid
Intestinal mucus membranes absorb nutrients

33. Connective Tissue Membranes
Connective tissue without epithelium
Synovial membranes: Linings that secrete fluid to prevent friction
Joints
bursae
Meninges: cover brain & spinal cord
Fibrous bands or sheets that support and hold organs
Superficial (subcutaneous) fascia: underlies skin
Deep fascia: surrounds muscle
Membranes that support organs
Fibrous pericardium: covers heart
Periosteum: covers bones
Perichondrium: covers cartilage

34. Synovial Membrane

35. Plantar Fascia

36. Membranes & Disease Membranes protect Membranes can transmit
Epithelial membranes more resistant than connective tissue membranes
Membranes can transmit
Can act as a pathway
Upper respiratory tract infection can become bronchial infection can become pneumonia
Membranes can be source of disease
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus – serous membranes are involved
Rheumatoid arthritis – synovial membranes are involved
Lupus

37. Benign & Malignant Tumors
Tumor – any abnormal growth of cells. Aka neoplasm
Occur most frequently in tissues that repair themselves quickly
Epithelium
Connective tissue
Benign tumor – confined to a local area and does not spread
Malignant tumor – spreads to neighboring tissues or distant parts of the body
aka cancer
Metastasis – process of spreading

38. Benign Tumors Structure
Cells stick together and grow as a single mass within tissue
In situ – confined to their place of origin and do not invade other tissues or spread to other sites
Often encapsulated
Can be dangerous if grow too large and take nutrients or compress tissue
Types
Papilloma – grows as a projecting mass from epithelium – wart
Adenoma – glandular epithelial tissue growth
Lipoma – adipose connective tissue tumor
Osteoma – bone connective tissue tumor
Myoma – muscle tissue tumor
Angioma – blood or lymph vessel tumor
Chondroma – cartilage connective tissue tumor

39. Malignant Tumors Grow much more rapidly than normal cells
Unable to function normally
Spread to other tissues
Send claw-like extensions to neighboring tissues
Seed distant tissue through blood or lymph
Metastases – secondary growth in new tissue

40. Malignant Tumors 2 Main Categories Other types of malignancies
Carcinoma – originate in epithelium
Most common
Usually spread by lymphatic system
Skin, mouth, lung, breast, colon, prostate
Sarcoma – originate in connective tissue
Found anywhere in body
Often spread to lungs
Usually spread by the blood
Other types of malignancies
Lymphoma – from lymph tissue
Leukemia – from white blood cells
Neuroma – from nerve cells – very rare
Glioma – from nerve support cells

41. Symptoms of Cancer Unusual bleeding or discharge
Persistent indigestion
Chronic cough or hoarseness
Changes in mole size or color
A sore that does not heal
White patches in the mouth or on the tongue
Losing weight without trying
Pain at night

42. Diagnosis of Cancer
Biopsy – microscopic study of tissues removed from the body
Pap smear
Radiography: the use of x-rays to obtain images of internal structures. Includes: CT, MRI, PET, Ultrasound
mammograms
Tumor markers in blood: Tumor markers are substances, such as hormones, enzymes, or proteins, produced in greater than normal quantity by cancerous cells.
PSA (prostate-specific Antigens): protein produced by prostatic tumor
CA-125 – ovarian cancer
Genetic testing
Breast cancer
Staging – procedure for establishing the extent of tumor spread
TMN System
T – primary tumor
N – regional lymph nodes
M – distant metastasis
I-IV
I – least severe
IV – most severe

43. Cancer Treatment Surgery Radiation Chemotherapy Immunotherapy
Can leave behind cells
Sometimes cannot due to extensive infiltration
Radiation
Radioactive beam directed to organ
Radioactive seeds placed in organ
Chemotherapy
Drug therapy
Most effective in combinations
Very toxic to normal cells also
Immunotherapy
Stimulate immune system as a whole
Vaccines specifically against a tumor

44. Tissues & Aging Loss of elasticity, causing flaccidity
Tendons and ligaments stretch and don’t return to original shape
Collagen less flexible
Blood vessels don’t expand as well
Bones lose minerals and become brittle
Gradual loss of cells from all tissue - atrophy