Environmental Regulations: Hazardous Substances and Wastes

Environmental Regulations: Hazardous Substances and Wastes
Chapter 18 Environmental Regulations: Hazardous Substances and Wastes

Environmental Regulations: Hazardous Substances and Wastes

Outline Hazardous and Toxic Materials in Our Environment
Hazardous and Toxic Substances—Some Definitions Defining Hazardous Waste Determining Regulations Environmental Problems Caused by Hazardous Wastes Health Risks Associated with Hazardous Wastes Hazardous-Waste Dumps—A Legacy of Abuse Hazardous-Waste Management Choices International Trade in Hazardous Wastes Hazardous-Waste Management Program Evolution

Hazardous and Toxic Materials in Our Environment
Our modern technological society makes use of a large number of substances that are hazardous or toxic. When these materials are released into the env in an inappropriate way through accident or neglect, significant envl and human health consequences result. At sites around the world, accidental or purposeful releases of hazardous and toxic chemicals are contaminating the land, air and water. Increasingly, governments and international agencies are attempting to control the growing problem.

Dioxins are found in Tittabawassee River in floodplain sediments in Michigan.
Pesticides are found in rural drinking water wells. There are elevated levels of mercury downwind of coal-fired power plants. Chemicals leaching from abandoned waste sites contaminate city water supplies. Pesticides spilled into the Rhine River from a warehouse near Basel, Switzerland, 1988 The potential health effects of these chemicals range from minor, short-term discomforts to serious health problems to major accidents that cause immediate injury or death.

Hazardous and Toxic Materials in Our Environment
Controlling the problem of hazardous substances is complicated because of the many steps involved in a substance’s life cycle. The life cycle of toxic substances

Hazardous and Toxic Substances—Some Definitions
Hazardous substances or hazardous materials are those that can cause harm to humans or the environment. The EPA defines hazardous materials as having one or more of the following characteristics: Ignitability (Fire hazard) Corrosiveness (Corrodes material) Reactivity (Explosiveness) Toxicity (May release toxins) Some hazardous materials, such as gasoline, fall into several categories. Terms are incorrectly used interchangeably. Toxic commonly refers to a narrow group of substances that cause human injury or death. Hazardous is a broader term; it refers to all dangerous materials that create a human health or environmental problem.

Defining Hazardous Waste
It is important to distinguish between hazardous substances and hazardous wastes. Hazardous wastes are by-products of industrial, business, or household activities for which there is no immediate use. They must be disposed of in an appropriate manner. There are stringent regulations pertaining to production, storage, and disposal.

U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA): This act created the “cradle-to-grave” concept of hazardous waste management by regulating generators, transporters, and Treatment Storage and Disposal Facilities (TSDF) as well as underground storage tanks (USTs) and petroleum products. This act also defined toxic and/or hazardous waste by using the terms listed and characteristic waste.

Under RCRA, substances are considered toxic or hazardous if they: Cause or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible, illness; or pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwise managed.

Listing is the most common method for defining hazardous waste in many countries. There are numerous types of hazardous wastes, taking many forms: Heavy metals (mercury, cadmium, lead) Organic wastes Liquid, sludge, incinerator ash Improper handling and disposal can affect human health and the environment through contamination. Effects of exposure can be immediate or long-term concerns.

EPA requires that a waste be tested to determine if it possesses any one of the four characteristics discussed earlier: ignitability, corrosiveness, reactivity, or toxicity. If does, it is “characteristic waste” and is subject to regulation under RCRA. OSHA and Department of Transportation (DOT) have complied their own lists, and there is a comprehensive “list of lists” that documents many of these.

The United Nations Environment Program estimates total annual international generation of hazardous wastes between million metric tons. U.S. EPA indicates U.S. generates about 36 million metric tons of hazardous waste annually. The rapidly industrialized countries of Asia are generating increasing amounts of hazardous waste, but it is difficult to estimate the amount. These wastes can also take many forms, such as barrels of liquid waste or sludge, old computer parts, used batteries, and incinerator ash.

In industrialized countries, industry and mining are the main sources of hazardous wastes, though small scale industry, hospitals, military establishments, transport services, and small workshops also contribute to the such waste in both the industrialized and developing world. The damage caused by the release of hazardous wastes into the env also takes an economic toll, since cleaning up contaminated sites can be costly for local authorities.

Determining Regulations
The U.S. has attempted to deal with hazardous substances and wastes by using “command and control” methods of governmental regulations, beginning with the development of the EPA and OSHA in 1970. Many states, as well as some countries, have tried to mirror these regulations by codifying their own statues specific to their needs. State regulations can be equal or more stringent than federal regulations. Creating these regulations is difficult due to the vast number of variables involved. The human factor that complicates the issue is the concept of NIMBY.

Governments also have to assess who will pay for cleanup if hazardous substances or wastes enter the env. Regulatory agencies try to identify PRP (potentially reliable party). Some voluntary industry standards have been developed and have been incorporated into federal acts. One example is ASTM International Phase I Environmental Site Assessment (ESA) standard E-1527. Businesses must to conduct ESA before they can receive any financing loan or grant money under the federal SBLRBRA.

To regulate toxic substances, most countries generate a list of specific substances that have been scientifically linked to adverse human health or envl effects. Most lists of toxic and hazardous substances include only known offenders (such as asbestos and DDT), since many potentially harmful chemical compounds have yet to be tested adequately (should also check if flammable, Corrosive, or explosive whether will produce mutations or cause cancer). Governments and regulatory agencies must attempt to determine how to fairly enforce measures to successfully control exposures to humans and the environment. Sometimes the reason for the regulation is lost in the effort to enforce it.

Setting Exposure Limits It is hard to set exposure level. OSHA, FDA, EPA and other agencies publish guidelines or set exposure limits for hazardous substances in the air, water, and soil. Nearly all substances are toxic in sufficiently high doses. People can be exposed in three ways: Inhalation Consumption Absorption Each of these may require different exposure classifications.

Typically the regulatory agency will determine the level of exposure at which none of the test animals is affected (threshold level) and then set the exposure level lower to allow for a safety margin. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) also test and set exposure limits. Even when concentrations are set, they may vary considerably from country to country. Must account for species-specific thresholds.

Acute vs. Chronic Toxicity Effects of massive doses at once (acute toxicity) and small doses over time (chronic toxicity, lead) differ. Chronic toxicity is much harder to detect as effects may not surface for long periods of time. Synergism Assessing the effects of chemical mixtures is also problematic. Most toxicity studies focus on a single compound. Synergism is the potential of relatively harmless individual compounds to become highly toxic and do great damage when combined.

Persistent pollutants remain in the environment, essentially unchanged, for long periods and build-up leads to chronic problems. Most are human-made. Synthetic chemicals are part of our food, transportation, clothing, building materials, home appliances, medicine, recreational equipment, and many other items. DDT (an effective pesticide, banded in many countries) is a persistent pollutant. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs, industrial use) are also persistent. Interferes with reproduction, causes liver ailments & skin lesion, damage nervous system in high amounts, suspected to be carcinogen

We also use heavy metals for many purposes.
Mercury, beryllium, arsenic, lead, and cadmium are examples of heavy and toxic metals. They may also be released as byproducts of the extraction and use of other metals. They enter food chain and become concentrated. They can cause kidney and liver damage, weaken the bone structure, and lead to death.

Nonpersistent pollutants do not remain for a long period and are often biodegradable and usually responsible for acute problems. A biodegradable material is chemically changed by living organisms and often serves as a source of food and energy for decomposer organisms, such as bacteria and fungi.

Many toxic organic materials can be destroyed by decomposer organisms.
Organophosphates decompose in several weeks. They do not accumulate in food chain. Other toxic materials such as carbon monoxide, ammonia, or hydrocarbons can be dispersed harmlessly into the atmosphere where eventually interact with oxygen. Regulation of persistent compounds is particularly important.

Environmental Problems Caused by Hazardous Wastes
Hazardous wastes enter the environment in many ways: Evaporation Fugitive emissions: the ones that escape from faulty piping and valves. Often not even thought of as hazardous waste. Improper disposal: uncontrolled or improper incineration of hazardous wastes, whether on land or at sea, can contaminate the atmosphere and the surrounding. Improper labeling and record-keeping: can results in release into env. If workers are unable to distinguish hazardous waste from other kinds of waste materials, they would be disposed improperly.

Health Risks Associated with Hazardous Wastes
Each year, roughly 1,000 new chemicals are produced and distributed. 70,000 chemicals are already in daily use. Industrial chemical products and by-products are often handled and disposed of improperly. May pose human health hazard. The problem of linking a particular chemical to specific diseases is compounded by a lack of toxicity data. Pesticides are very harmful to human, but if they are labeled and disposed of properly, they do not constitute a human health hazard.

Hazardous-Waste Dumps— A Legacy of Abuse
Prior to RCRA in 1976, hazardous waste was essentially unregulated. Hazardous wastes were simply buried or dumped. Sites were typically located convenient to the industry and were often in environmentally sensitive areas such as floodplains or wetlands. At the time these lands were considered unimportant and were frequently abandoned or filled in to make room for further development. In North America alone, there are over 25,000 abandoned or uncontrolled sites. Water pollution Netherlands 8 miln metric tons of hazardous chemical buried Soviet Union, Eastern Europe many hazardous sites identified Many unknown hazardous sites in developing countries

In the U.S., the federal government has become the principal participant in the cleanup of hazardous-waste sites. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) was enacted in 1980. This program deals with financing the cleanup of large, uncontrolled hazardous-waste sites and has become known as Superfund. Superfund was established when Congress responded to public pressure to clean up hazardous-waste dumps and protect the public against the danger of such wastes.

CERCLA had several key objectives: Develop a comprehensive program to set priorities for cleaning up the worst existing sites. Make responsible parties pay for cleanup when possible. Set up a $1.6 billion Hazardous Waste Trust Fund (Superfund) to support the identification and cleanup of abandoned hazardous-waste sites. Advance scientific and technological capabilities in hazardous waste management, treatment, and disposal.

A National Priorities List of hazardous-waste sites requiring urgent attention was drawn up for Superfund action. Under CERCLA, over 44,000 sites were evaluated, and about 11,000 were considered serious enough to warrant further investigation. The number of sites on the National Priorities List fluctuates as new sites are added and old sites are deleted as they are cleaned up. Currently there are about 1,200 sites on the National Priorities List.

Because any contributor to the site could be held responsible for entire cleanup costs (the way CSRCLA was written, many industries had left/could not be identified), regardless of the degree to which they contributed to the problem, many companies found it cost-effective to hire lawyers to fight their inclusion in cleanup efforts (millions of $ were spend). Liability w/o fault But by 2004, there were about 1,200 sites on the National Priorities list. About 900 sites have been cleaned up. Most of the remaining sites are in the process of being cleaned up or are under study about the best way to proceed. $27 billion in total expenditures for superfund program.

In 1987, any industrial plant that released at least 23,000 kg of toxic pollutants into the environment was required to file a report. These were primarily manufacturing industries. The information collected allowed EPA to target specific industries for enforcement action.

Since info were public, industries were encouraged to take action to reduce their emission, reduced by 60% from 1988 through 2003. About 2.1 billion kg of toxic chemicals were reported released into the environment by industry in 2008. Today primary industries involved are mining, power generation, chemical, and metal manufacturing.

Sources of toxic releases (2003)

Hazardous-Waste Management Choices
The amount of hazardous wastes released to the environment is about 23% of the total amount of hazardous waste produced (77% of 27.5 milim of 2003, was recycled, burned for E, or treated). Recognition of the cost of uncontrolled release of toxic materials led to laws & REGULATIONS that governs the release and forced industries to report the hazardous wastes they released and to pay for the measures needed to eliminate or reduce the waste.

In the past, management of hazardous waste was always added on to the end of the industrial process.
The effluents from pipes or smokestacks were treated to reduce their toxicity or concentration. In recent years, EPA and other regulatory agencies have emphasized pollution prevention and waste minimization. This includes concepts such as Design for Environment (DfE), which incorporates the idea of taking into account environmental concerns and costs prior to production and looking at things more holistically.

The EPA promotes a pollution prevention hierarchy (P2) which emphasizes: Reduce the amount of pollution at the source. Recycle wastes whenever possible. Treat wastes to reduce hazard and / or volume. Dispose of wastes on land or incinerate them as last resort.

Simplest way to deal with hazardous wastes is no to produce them in the first place. The pollution-prevention hierarchy stresses reductions in the amount of hazardous waste produced by employing several different strategies. Pollution-prevention hierarchy

Pollution prevention (P2) encourages changes that prevent hazardous wastes from being produced. Primary among them are activities that result in fewer accidental spills, leaks from pipes and valves, loss from broken containers, and similar mishaps. Many of the actions are simple and cost little, companies make money by spending less on row materials. U.S. army phasing out lead bullets (green bullet w no lead). Waste minimization involves manufacturing changes that can reduce waste. Replace hazardous solvents w water. Allow water to evaporate from waste to reduce volume. Use waste produced in a process in another aspect of the process Clean solvents used in processes

Recycling wastes involves using wastes for another purpose, thus eliminating them as “waste.” Burn waste oils and solvents as fuel. Incorporate ash or other solid wastes into concrete or other building materials.

Wastes can be treated in a way that their amount is reduced or their hazardous nature is modified. Neutralization of acids/bases Biodegradation of organic compounds using microorganisms Air stripping to remove volatile chemicals from water (stem stripping uses heated air) Carbon absorption use activated particles of carbon to treat hazardous chemicals in gaseous and liquid waste Precipitation by adding special materials to a liquid waste

Currently, the two most common methods for disposing of hazardous wastes are incineration and land disposal. Incineration (thermal treatment) burns wastes at high temperatures. A well-designed, well-run incinerator can destroy % of hazardous materials. High costs and concerns about emissions have kept incineration from becoming a major method in North America. More cost-effective in Europe and Japan where land is in short supply Mostly incinerated at sea on specially designed ships

Land disposal is the primary method used when all other options have been exhausted. Deep-well injection into porous geological formations/salt caverns; 50% Discharge of treated or untreated liquids into water sources; 20% Placement of liquid wastes into surface holding pits, ponds, or lagoons Storage of solid wastes in hazardous waste landfills; 5%

Waste immobilization is useful for dealing with wastes such as heavy metals, that can not be destroyed. Immobilizing a waste puts it into a solid form that is easier to handle, and is less likely to enter the surrounding area. Fixation Solidification

International Trade in Hazardous Wastes
There is particular concern about rich, industrialized countries exporting wastes to poorer, developing countries lacking administrative and technological resources to safely dispose of the waste. 1999, metric tons of mercury contaminated concrete waste packed in plastic bags, labeled as “construction waste” was found in an open dump in small town near Cambodia (from a Taiwanese petrochemical). Objectives of the Basel Convention (1989) are to minimize generation of hazardous wastes and control and reduce transboundary movements to protect human health and the environment.

Hazardous-Waste Management Program Evolution
The goal of a hazardous-waste management program is to change the behavior of those who generate hazardous wastes so that they routinely store, transport, treat, and dispose of them in an environmentally safe manner. Major stages: Identify problem and enact legislation. Designate lead agency. Establish rules and regulations. Develop treatment and disposal capacity. Create a compliance and enforcement program.

The convention prohibits exports of hazardous waste to Antarctica, to countries that have banned such imports as national policy, and to non parties to the convention. There is broad ban on the export of hazardous waster from N to S hemisphere. Export for recycling from industrialized nations to developing nations: reduces quantity of such substances that get into the env through final disposal and slows down the depletion of natural resources if receiving country has proper recycling facilities and adequate envl standards.

Summary Public awareness of the problems of hazardous substances and hazardous wastes is relatively recent. Industrialized countries of Europe and N. America began major regulation of hazardous materials within the past 30 years. Many developing countries exercise little or no control over such substances. There is no agreement as to what constitutes a hazardous waste.

Summary Little is known about the amounts of hazardous waste generated throughout the world. We have a limited understanding of the health effects of most hazardous wastes. Large numbers of potentially hazardous chemicals are being developed faster than their health risks can be evaluated. Industries need to be encouraged to generate less hazardous waste in their manufacturing processes.

Summary Although toxic wastes cannot entirely be eliminated, technologies are available for minimizing, recycling, and treating wastes. The final outcome rests with governmental and agency policy makers, as well as with an educated public.

Environmental Regulations: Hazardous Substances and Wastes

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Environmental Regulations: Hazardous Substances and Wastes"— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback

Log in

Auth with social network:

Environmental Regulations: Hazardous Substances and Wastes

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "Environmental Regulations: Hazardous Substances and Wastes"— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback