1. Independent Clauses and Subordinate Clauses
The Clause
Independent Clauses and Subordinate Clauses

2. What is a Clause?
Clause: a word group that contains a verb and its subject and that is used as a sentence or as part of a sentence.
Every clause has a subject and a verb, but not all clauses express complete thoughts. Those that do are called independent clauses. Those that do not are called subordinate clauses.

3. Independent Clauses
Independent/Main Clause: expresses a complete thought and can stand by itself as a sentence.
Ex: The outfielders missed easy fly balls.
Independent clauses that express related ideas can be joined together in a single sentence. Often, the clauses are linked by a comma and one of the coordinating conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
Ex: The outfielders missed easy fly balls, and the infielders were throwing wildly.

4. Independent Clauses cont.
Independent clauses can also be linked by a semicolon.
Ex: The outfielders missed easy fly balls; the infielders were throwing wildly.
A conjunctive adverb or a transitional expression can be used after the semicolon to express the relationship between the independent clauses.
Ex: The outfielders missed easy fly balls; moreover, the infielders were throwing wildly.
A list of commonly used conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions can be found on p.493.

5. Subordinate Clauses
Subordinate/Dependent Clause: does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence.
Ex: whom we spoke to yesterday
The thought expressed by a subordinate clause becomes part of a complete thought when the clause is combined with an independent clause.
Ex: The woman whom we spoke to yesterday told us about sources of financial aid for college students.

6. Where does a subordinate clause begin?
In a nutshell, subordinate clauses can be divided into three categories: Adjective Clauses, Adverb Clauses, and Noun Clauses. We’ll get into more detail about these later, but here are some clues as to where they begin.
Adjective Clauses:
Relative Pronouns: Who, Whom, Whose, Which, and That
Adverb Clauses:
Subordinating Conjunctions: found on p.499
Noun Clauses:
List of introductory words found on p.501

7. Complements and Modifiers in Subordinate Clauses
A subordinate clause may contain complements and modifiers.
since she told us the truth (Us is the indirect object of the verb told, and truth is the direct object of told.)
when I am busy (Busy is a predicate adjective modifying the subject I.)
after he had cooked for us (For us is a prepositional phrase modifying the verb had cooked)
that he recently painted (That is the direct object of the verb painted; recently is an adverb modifying painted)

9. Uses of Subordinate Clauses
Subordinate clauses can be used as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.

10. The Adjective Clause
Adjective Clause: a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or pronoun
An adjective clause tells what kind or which one and generally follows the word or words it modifies
Ex. I am now reading this book, which is a historical novel about the Irish revolt of 1798.
The adjective clause modifies the noun book, telling what kind of book.

11. Adjective Clauses: Essential or Nonessential
Depending on how it is used, an adjective clause is either essential or nonessential.
Essential/Restrictive Clause: contains information necessary to the sentence’s meaning.
Nonessential/Nonrestrictive Clause: contains information that can be omitted without affecting the sentence’s basic meaning.
An essential clause is not set off by commas, a nonessential clause is set off by commas.
Essential
The oboe is the only instrument that I can play well.
Nonessential
Emily, who can play many instruments, taught me how to play the oboe.

12. Adjective Clauses: Relative Pronouns
An adjective clause is usually introduced by a relative pronoun
Who, Whom, Whose, Which, That
Relative pronouns are used because they relate an adjective clause to the word or word group the clause modifies. That word or word group is called the antecedent.
Ex: The topic about which he is writing is controversial. (Which relates the adjective clause to the noun topic. Which also serves as the object of the preposition about in the adjective clause.

13. Adjective Clauses: Relative Pronouns cont.
Sometimes the relative pronoun is left out of a sentence. In such a sentence, the pronoun is understood and still serves a grammatical function within the adjective clause.
Ex: Ms. Chung is the legislator [that or whom] we met. (That or whom is understood. The understood relative pronoun relates the adjective clause to legislator and serves as the direct object of the verb met in the adjective clause.)
Note: Who and whom refer to persons only; which refers to things only; that refers to persons or things.
Occasionally, an adjective clause is introduced by the word where or when. When used in such a way, these words are called relative adverbs.
Ex: Here is the spot where we will have lunch. (Where relates the adjective clause to the noun spot.)

14. The Adverb Clause
Adverb Clause: is a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
An adverb clause tells how, when, where, why, to what extent, or under what condition.
Ex. Donna sounds as if she has caught a cold. (The adverb clause modifies the verb sounds, telling how Donna sounds.)
Ex. Before we left, we lowered the blinds. (The adverb clause modifies the verb lowered, telling when we lowered the blinds.)

15. Adverb Clauses: Subordinating Conjunctions
An adverb clause is introduced by a subordinating conjunction.
Subordinating Conjunctions: a word that shows the relationship between the adverb clause and the word or words that the clause modifies.
Unlike a relative pronoun, which introduces an adjective clause, a subordinating conjunction does not serve a grammatical function in the clause it introduces.
A table of commonly used subordinating conjunctions can be found on p.499

16. Notes on Adj. vs. Adv. Clauses
Adjective clauses always come after the noun or pronoun being modified.
Adverb clauses can come before or after the word they modify if they modify a verb. If the adverb clause modifies an adjective or adverb, it will come after it.
An adverb clause at the beginning of the sentence will be followed by a comma, but not other times.

18. The Noun Clause
Noun Clause: is a subordinate clause that is used as a noun.
A noun clause may be used as a subject, a predicate nominative, a direct object, an indirect object, or the object of a preposition.
Subject: What I need is my own room.
PN: The happiest time in my life was when we went to Costa Rica for the summer.
DO: She believes that lost time is never found again.
IO: We will give whoever wins the contest a prize.
OP: She has written an article about how she was elected to the Senate.
A table for common introductory words for noun clauses can be found on p.501

19. Sentences Classified According to Structure
The structure of a sentence is determined by the number and types of clauses it has.
A sentence can be classified, depending on its structure, as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.

20. Simple Sentence
Simple Sentence: contains one independent clause and no subordinate clauses.
A simple sentence may contain a compound subject, a compound verb, and any number of phrases.
Ex: Cora and Karen bought party supplies at the mall (compound subject.)
Ex: Later, they drove to school and decorated the cafeteria for the Ecology Club’s annual banquet. (compound verbs.)

21. Compound Sentence
Compound Sentence: contains two or more independent clauses and no subordinate clauses.
A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined together by:
1. a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
Cora hung colorful streamers from the ceiling, and Karen set party favors on the tables.
2. a semicolon
After an hour, they took a short break; then they went back to work.
3. a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb such as: therefore, however, or consequently followed by a comma.
They agreed not to take any more breaks; otherwise, they would be late getting home.

22. Complex Sentence and Compound-Complex Sentence
Complex Sentence: contains one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause.
Ex: When they had finished their work, they complimented each other on the results.
Compound-Complex Sentence: contains two or more independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.
Ex: Cora waited for just the right moment to ask Adam to the banquet, and he promptly accepted her invitation, adding that he had been planning to ask her.