1. Population Dynamics

2. Population Dynamics
Links used to help embellish these notes: (carrying capacity and limiting factors clip)
(density dependent and independent limiting factors)
( r and K selection) (human population dynamics TED talk)

3. Definition of population dynamics
Population dynamics refers to changes in a population over time
Population dynamics includes four variables:
density
dispersion
age distribution
size

4. 1. Population Density
Population density (or ecological population density) is the amount of individuals in a population per unit habitat area
Some species exist in high densities
ex. Mice, cockroaches
Some species exist in low densities
ex. Mountain lions
Density depends upon
social/population structure (ex. territoriality)
mating relationships (ex. harems)
time of year (ex. lekking species)

5. 2. Population Dispersion
Population dispersion is the spatial pattern of distribution
There are three main classifications
clumped: individuals are lumped into groups
ex. Flocking birds or herbivore herds
due to resources that are clumped or social interactions
most common
Dispersion-how they are distributed in their habitat
Other examples of clumps: patches of vegetation, wolf packs, schools of fish. Viewed from above most of the world’s landscapes are patchy with clumps of various plant and animal species found here and there. The same thing is found underwater and in the soil.
4 Reasons for Clumping
Resources a species needs varies from place to place
Better protection
Predator species have a better chance of getting a meal if hunting in packs
Temporary groups for mating and caring for young are sometimes formed

6. Population Dispersion (cont)
Uniform: Individuals are regularly spaced in the environment
ex. Creosote bush
due to antagonism between individuals, or do to regular spacing of resources
Less common because resources are rarely evenly spaced
Random: Individuals are randomly dispersed in the environment
ex. Dandelions
due to random distribution of resources in the environment, and neither positive nor negative interaction between individuals
Often for plants with wind-dispersed seeds
rare because these conditions are rarely met
Why does this uniform spacing benefit the creosote bush? By having this pattern, they have better access to scarce water resources

7. 3. Age structure
The age structure of a population is usually shown graphically
The population is usually divided up into prereproductives, reproductives and postreproductives
The age structure of a population dictates whether it will grow, shrink, or stay the same size
What does a large base indicate about the population?
What does a large top indicate about the population?
Prereproductives: not old enough to reproduce
Reproductives: those capable of reprduction
Postreproductives: those too old to reproduce

8. 4. Population growth
Population growth depends upon birth rates, death rates, immigration rates and emigration rates
Pop (now) = Pop (then) + (b + i) – (d + e)
Pop change = (b + i) – (d + e)
Zero population growth is when
(b + i) = (d + e)
ex. If a population is growing at a rate of 2% per year, that means that 2 new individuals are added to the population for every 100 already present per year.

9. 4. Population growth Exponential Logistic
Populations show several types of growth
Exponential
Logistic

10. Exponential growth Consider the difference between the two sequences:
2,4,6,8,10 (arithematic growth)
Nt = N0+2  the increase is constant as the population grows
2,4,8,16,32 (exponential growth)
Nt = N0 * 2  the increase changes as the population grows – in other words, the larger the population IS, the faster it GROWS

11. Exponential growth graphically
J-shaped curve
Exponential growth is growth that is not limited by resources
Species grow at their full BIOTIC POTENTIAL
Exponential growth begins slowly, but quickly increases.
The size of the population of a particular species in a given place and time is determined by the interplay between its biotic potential and environmental resistance (Fig 9-3, pg 165)
Together biotic potential and environmental resistance determine the carrying capacity (K). This is the maximum number of species that can be sustained indefinitely in a given space.

12. Exponential Growth Example
Darwin pondered the question of exponential growth. He knew that all species had the potential to grow exponentially. He wondered how fast an elephant population could growth exponentially.
He used elephants as an example because elephants are one of the slowest breeders on the planet
One female will produce 6 young over her 100 yr life span. In a population, this amounts to a growth rate of 2%
Darwin wondered, how many elephants could result from one male and one female in 750 years?
= 19,000,000 elephants!!!
Another example:
1 female housefly can produce a population of 6,182,442,727,320 flies in one year.

13. Do all species enjoy exponential growth?
NO!
The exponential growth of most populations ends at some point.
Why? (overshoot, dieback/crash)

14. Logistic Growth
Populations increase to some level, and then maintain that stable level (with minor oscillations)

15. Logistic Growth 1. The population experiences exponential growth.
2. Population size (and density) increases, the growth rate decreases as a result of density-dependent factors.
3. The population approaches the carrying capacity, K, the number of individuals that the environment can support
S-shaped growth curve

16. What limits population growth?
Biotic potential
- capacity for growth without limits
Intrinsic rate of increase (r)
- rate of growth with unlimited resources
Environmental Resistance
- limiting factors
Carrying Capacity (K) =
biotic potential + environmental resistance

17. What limits population growth?
Density-independent factors:
affect populations randomly (without respect to density)
ex. Hurricanes, tornadoes, fire, drought, floods
Are they biotic factors or abiotic factors?
They have the ability to cause rapid increases or decreases in populations, but they are poor regulators of populations
D-I factors affect all populations (with all growth patterns)
Density-dependent factors:
affect populations most when densities are high
ex. Disease, competition, predation, parasitism
Are they biotic or abiotic factors?
These act to limit population growth only when populations are large, and are therefore good regulators of populations
D-D factors cause populations to have logistic growth
Example of D-I factor: A severe freeze in late spring can kill many individuals in a plant population, regardless of density.
Abiotic factors
Example of D-D factor: Bubonic plague, which swept through densely populated European cities during the 14th century. The bacterium causing the disease normally lives in rodents. It was transferred to humans by fleas that fed on infected rodents and then bit humans. The disease spread like wildfire through crowded cities, where sanitary conditions were poor and rats were abundant. At lease 25 million people in Europeans cities died from the disease.
Biotic factors

18. Population Fluctuations
Stable
Irruptive
Cyclic
Irregular

19. Life History Strategies
The goal of all individuals is to produce as many offspring as possible
Each individual has a limited amount of energy to put towards life and reproduction
This leads to trade-offs of long life vs. high reproduction rate
Natural selection has favored the production of two main types of species: r-strategists, K-strategists
In 1967, Macarthur ans Wilson suggested that species could be clasified into two fundamental reproductive patterns, r-selected and K-selected species. This classification depends on their position on the s-shaped population growth curve and their reproductive patterns.

20. r - strategists
r-strategists are so-called, because they spend most of their time in exponential growth
they maximize their reproductive rate
Boom-bust cycles
High rate of population increase
Reproduce early and put most of their energy into reproduction

21. r - strategists
Examples include algae bacteria, rodents, annual plants (dandelions), and most insects.
Considered opportunists (explains boom bust cycles)

22. K - strategists
Those species that maintain their population levels at K (= carrying capacity)
these populations spend most of their time at K
They are called K-selected species because they tend to do well in competitive conditions when their population size is near the carrying capacity (K) of their environment. Their populations typically follow a logistic growth curve.

23. K - strategists
Many K-selected species – especially those with long generation times and low reproductive rates like elephants, rhinoceroses, and sharks – are prone to extinction.
Most organisms have reproductive patterns between the extremes of r-selected species and K-selected species, or they change from one extreme to the other under certain environmental conditions.
The reproductive pattern of a species ma give it a temporary advantage. But the availability of suitable habitat for individuals of a population in a particular area is what determines its ultimate population size. Regardless of how fast a species can reproduce, there can be no more dandelions that there is dandelion habitat and no more zebras that there is zebra habitat in a particular area.

24. Survivorship curves
There are 3-4 types of relationships between age and mortality rate
These affect the life-history strategies
Late loss population (elephants, rhinoceroses , and humans) typically have a high survivorship to a certain age, then high mortality.
Constant loss population (many songbirds) shows a fairly constant death rate at all ages.
Early loss population (annual plants and many bony fish species) survivorship is low early in life

26. Loss of Genetic Diversity:
Founder Effect: The establishment of a new population by a few original pioneers which carry only a small fraction of the total genetic variation of the parental population
Demographic Bottleneck: Genetic diversity loss that occurs as a result of a drastic reduction in population by an event having little to do with the usual forces of natural selection.
Genetic Drift: The process of change in the genetic composition of a population due to chance or random events rather than by natural selection, resulting in changes in allele frequencies over time.

27. Altering nature to meet our needs
Reducing biodiversity by destroying, fragmenting, and degrading wildlife habitats.
Reducing biodiversity by simplifying and homogenizing natural ecosystems.
Using, wasting or destroying an increasing percentage of the earth’s net primary productivity that supports all consumer species.
Strengthened some populations of pest species and disease-causing bacteria.
Eliminate some predators.
We have deliberately or accidentally introduced new or nonnative species into ecosystems.
Overharvested some renewable resources.
Interfered with the normal chemical cycling and energy flows in ecosystems.
Human dominated ecosystems have become increasing dependent on nonrenewable energy from fossil fuels.