1. Chapter 8: Deformation & Strengthening Mechanisms
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Why are the number of dislocations present
greatest in metals?
• How are strength and dislocation motion related?
• Why does heating alter strength and other properties?

2. Dislocations & Materials Classes
• Metals (Cu, Al):
Dislocation motion easiest
- non-directional bonding
- close-packed directions
for slip
electron cloud
ion cores +
• Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion difficult
- directional (angular) bonding
• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):
Motion difficult
- need to avoid nearest neighbors of like sign (- and +) + -

3. Dislocation Motion Dislocation motion & plastic deformation
Metals - plastic deformation occurs by slip – an edge dislocation (extra half-plane of atoms) slides over adjacent plane half-planes of atoms.
So we saw that above the yield stress plastic deformation occurs. But how? In a perfect single crystal for this to occur every bond connecting tow planes would have to break at once! Large energy requirement
Now rather than entire plane of bonds needing to be broken at once, only the bonds along dislocation line are broken at once.
If dislocations can't move, plastic deformation doesn't occur!
Adapted from Fig. 8.1, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

4. Dislocation Motion
For an edge dislocation, the dislocation line moves in the direction of the applied shear stress
For a screw dislocation, the dislocation line motion is perpendicular to the stress direction
Edge dislocation
Adapted from Fig. 8.2, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
Screw dislocation

5. Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
Slip plane - plane on which easiest slippage occurs
Highest planar densities (and large interplanar spacings)
Slip directions - directions of movement
Highest linear densities
Adapted from Fig. 8.6, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110> directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
For BCC & HCP there are other slip systems.

6. Stress and Dislocation Motion
• Resolved shear stress, tR
results from applied tensile stresses
Applied tensile
stress:
= F/A s
direction
slip F A
slip plane
normal, ns
Resolved shear
stress: tR = F s /A
direction
slip AS FS
direction
slip
Relation between s
and tR = FS
/AS F
cos l A / f nS AS

7. Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Condition for dislocation motion:
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa
typically
• Ease of dislocation motion depends
on crystallographic orientation tR
= 0 l
= 90° s tR = s /2 l
= 45° f tR
= 0 f
= 90° s
 maximum at  =  = 45º

8. Single Crystal Slip Adapted from Fig. 8.9, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

9. Ex: Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?
 = 60°
crss = 20.7 MPa
 = 35°
Adapted from Fig. 8.7, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
 = 45 MPa
So the applied stress of 45 MPa will not cause the crystal to yield.

10. Ex: Deformation of single crystal
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the yield stress, sy)?
So for deformation to occur the applied stress must be greater than or equal to the yield stress

11. Slip Motion in Polycrystals
300 mm
• Polycrystals stronger than
single crystals – grain
boundaries are barriers
to dislocation motion.
• Slip planes & directions
(l, f) change from one
grain to another.
• tR will vary from one
• The grain with the
largest tR yields first.
• Other (less favorably
oriented) grains
yield later.
Adapted from Fig. 8.10, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig is courtesy of C. Brady, National Bureau of Standards [now the National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD].)

12. Anisotropy in sy • Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling
- after rolling
- anisotropic
since rolling affects grain
orientation and shape.
rolling direction
Adapted from Fig. 8.11, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig is from W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure, p. 140, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1964.)
235 mm
- isotropic
since grains are
equiaxed &
randomly oriented.

13. Anisotropy in Deformation
• The noncircular end view shows
anisotropic deformation of rolled material.
end
view
3. Deformed
cylinder
plate
thickness
direction
Photos courtesy
of G.T. Gray III,
Los Alamos
National Labs. Used with
permission.
1. Cylinder of
tantalum
machined
from a
rolled plate:
rolling direction
2. Fire cylinder
at a target.
side view

14. Four Strategies for Strengthening: 1: Reduce Grain Size
• Grain boundaries are
barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
increases with
Increasing angle of
misorientation.
• Smaller grain size:
more barriers to slip.
• Hall-Petch Equation:
Adapted from Fig. 8.14, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig is from A Textbook of Materials Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

15. Four Strategies for Strengthening: 2: Form Solid Solutions
• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate lattice strains.
• These strains can act as barriers to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional
impurity
Impurity generates local stress at A and B that opposes dislocation motion to the right. A B
• Larger substitutional
impurity
Impurity generates local stress at C and D that opposes dislocation motion to the right. C D

16. Lattice Strains Around Dislocations
Don’t move past one another – hardens material
Adapted from Fig. 8.4, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

17. Strengthening by Solid Solution Alloying
Small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations (regions of compressive strains) - partial cancellation of dislocation compressive strains and impurity atom tensile strains
Reduce mobility of dislocations and increase strength
Adapted from Fig. 8.17, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

18. Strengthening by Solid Solution Alloying
Large impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations (regions of tensile strains)
Adapted from Fig. 8.18, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

19. Ex: Solid Solution Strengthening in Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
Tensile strength (MPa)
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C)
200
300
400 10 20 30 40 50
Yield strength (MPa)
wt.%Ni, (Concentration C) 60
120
180 10 20 30 40 50
Adapted from Fig (a) and (b), Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
• Empirical relation:
• Alloying increases sy and TS.

20. Four Strategies for Strengthening: 3: Precipitation Strengthening
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).
Side View
precipitate
Top View
Slipped part of slip plane
Unslipped part of slip plane S
spacing
Large shear stress needed
to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.
Dislocation
“advances” but
precipitates act as
“pinning” sites with
spacing S .
• Result:

21. Application: Precipitation Strengthening
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph, Chapter 11, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (courtesy of G.H. Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.)
• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed
by alloying.
1.5mm
Adapted from Fig , Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (courtesy of G.H. Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.)

22. Four Strategies for Strengthening: 4: Cold Work (Strain Hardening)
• Deformation at room temperature (for most metals).
• Common forming operations reduce the cross-sectional area:
Adapted from Fig. 14.2, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
-Forging A o d
force
die
blank
-Rolling
roll A o d
-Drawing
tensile
force A o d
die
-Extrusion
ram
billet
container
force
die holder
die A o d
extrusion

23. Dislocation Structures Change During Cold Working
• Dislocation structure in Ti after cold working.
• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during cold work.
• Dislocation motion
becomes more difficult.
Adapted from Fig. 5.11, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig is courtesy of M.R. Plichta, Michigan Technological University.)

24. Dislocation Density Increases During Cold Working
total dislocation length
unit volume
Dislocation density =
Carefully grown single crystals
 ca. 103 mm-2
Deforming sample increases density
 mm-2
Heat treatment reduces density
 mm-2
Again it propagates through til reaches the edge
• Yield stress increases as rd increases:

25. Lattice Strain Interactions Between Dislocations
Adapted from Fig. 8.5, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

26. Impact of Cold Work As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (sy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.
Adapted from Fig. 8.20, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
low carbon steel

27. Mechanical Property Alterations Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength & ductility after cold working Cu?
Cold
Work
Dd = 12.2 mm
Copper
Do = 15.2 mm 27

28. Mechanical Property Alterations Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength & ductility for Cu for %CW = 35.6%?
% Cold Work
100
300
500
700 Cu 20 40 60
% Cold Work
200 Cu
400
600
800 20 40 60
% Cold Work 20 40 60 Cu
yield strength (MPa)
tensile strength (MPa)
ductility (%EL)
sy = 300 MPa
300 MPa
340 MPa
TS = 340 MPa 7%
%EL = 7%
Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.) 28

29. Effect of Heat Treating After Cold Working
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are nullified!
tensile strength (MPa)
ductility (%EL)
tensile strength
ductility
Recovery
Recrystallization
Grain Growth
600
300
400
500 60 50 40 30 20
annealing temperature (ºC)
200
100
700
• Three Annealing stages:
Recovery
Recrystallization
Grain Growth
Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig is adapted from G. Sachs and K.R. van Horn, Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy, and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, American Society for Metals, 1940, p. 139.)

30. Three Stages During Heat Treatment: 1. Recovery
During recovery, some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by virtue of dislocation motion as a result of enhanced atomic diffusion at the elevated temperature.
Reduction of dislocation density by annihilation.

31. Three Stages During Heat Treatment: 2. Recrystallization
• New grains are formed that:
-- have low dislocation densities
-- are small in size
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.
33% cold
worked
brass
New crystals
nucleate after
3 sec. at 580C.
0.6 mm
Adapted from Fig (a),(b), Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig (a),(b) are courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.)

32. As Recrystallization Continues…
• All cold-worked grains are eventually consumed/replaced.
After 4
seconds
After 8
0.6 mm
Adapted from Fig (c),(d), Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig (c),(d) are courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.)

33. Three Stages During Heat Treatment: 3. Grain Growth
• At longer times, average grain size increases.
-- Small grains shrink (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large grains continue to grow
After 8 s,
580ºC
After 15 min,
0.6 mm
Adapted from Fig (d),(e), Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig (d),(e) are courtesy of J.E. Burke, General Electric Company.)
• Empirical Relation:
elapsed time
coefficient dependent
on material and T.
grain diam.
at time t.
exponent typ. ~ 2

34. TR = recrystallization temperature
Adapted from Fig. 8.22, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.

35. Recrystallization Temperature
TR = recrystallization temperature = temperature at which recrystallization just reaches completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm
For a specific metal/alloy, TR depends on:
%CW -- TR decreases with increasing %CW
Purity of metal -- TR decreases with increasing purity

36. Diameter Reduction Procedure - Problem
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 10 mm (0.39 in) in diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The circular cross section will be maintained during deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess of 380 MPa (55,000 psi) and a ductility of at least 15 %EL are desired. Furthermore, the final diameter must be 7.5 mm (0.30 in). Explain how this may be accomplished.

37. Diameter Reduction Procedure - Solution
What are the consequences of directly drawing to the final diameter?
Brass
Cold
Work D f
= 7.5 mm D o
= 10 mm

38. Diameter Reduction Procedure – Solution (Cont.)
420
540 6
For %CW = 43.8%
Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
y = 420 MPa
TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
%EL = < 15
This doesn’t satisfy criteria… what other options are possible?

39. Diameter Reduction Procedure – Solution (cont.)
380 12 15 27
Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
For TS > 380 MPa
> 12 %CW
For %EL > 15
< 27 %CW
 our working range is limited to 12 < %CW < 27

40. Diameter Reduction Procedure – Solution (cont.)
Cold work, then anneal, then cold work again
For objective we need a cold work of 12 < %CW < 27
We’ll use 20 %CW
Diameter after first cold work stage (but before 2nd cold work stage) is calculated as follows:
So after the cold draw & anneal D02=0.335m 
Intermediate diameter =

41. Diameter Reduction Procedure – Summary
Stage 1: Cold work – reduce diameter from 10 mm to 8.39 mm
Stage 2: Heat treat (allow recrystallization)
Stage 3: Cold work – reduce diameter from 8.39 mm to 7.5 mm
Therefore, all criteria satisfied
Fig 8.19 

42. Cold Working vs. Hot Working
Hot working  deformation above TR
Cold working  deformation below TR

43. Grain Size Influences Properties
Metals having small grains – relatively strong and tough at low temperatures
Metals having large grains – good creep resistance at relatively high temperatures

44. Mechanical Properties of Polymers – Stress-Strain Behavior
brittle polymer
plastic
elastomer
elastic moduli – less than for metals
Adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
• Fracture strengths of polymers ~ 10% of those for metals
• Deformation strains for polymers > 1000% – for most metals, deformation strains < 10% 44 44

45. Mechanisms of Deformation—Brittle Crosslinked and Network Polymers
(MPa)
Near Failure
Near Failure
Initial x
Initial
network polymer
brittle failure x
plastic failure
aligned, crosslinked
polymer e
Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. 45 45

46. Mechanisms of Deformation — Semicrystalline (Plastic) Polymers
(MPa)
fibrillar structure
near
failure x
brittle failure
Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. Inset figures along plastic response curve adapted from Figs & 8.28, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Figs & 8.28 are from J.M. Schultz, Polymer Materials Science, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1974, pp )
onset of
necking
plastic failure x
crystalline
regions align
crystalline
block segments
separate
amorphous
regions
elongate
unload/reload
undeformed
structure e 46 46

47. Predeformation by Drawing
• Drawing…(ex: monofilament fishline)
-- stretches the polymer prior to use
-- aligns chains in the stretching direction
• Results of drawing:
-- increases the elastic modulus (E) in the
stretching direction
-- increases the tensile strength (TS) in the
-- decreases ductility (%EL)
• Annealing after drawing...
-- decreases chain alignment
-- reverses effects of drawing (reduces E and TS, enhances %EL)
• Contrast to effects of cold working in metals!
Adapted from Fig. 8.28, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig is from J.M. Schultz, Polymer Materials Science, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1974, pp ) 47 47

48. Mechanisms of Deformation—Elastomers
(MPa)
final: chains
are straighter,
still
cross-linked x
brittle failure
Stress-strain curves adapted from Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. Inset figures along elastomer curve (green) adapted from Fig. 8.30, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig is from Z.D. Jastrzebski, The Nature and Properties of Engineering Materials, 3rd ed., John Wiley and Sons, 1987.)
plastic failure x x
elastomer
initial: amorphous chains are
kinked, cross-linked.
deformation
is reversible (elastic)! e
• Compare elastic behavior of elastomers with the:
-- brittle behavior (of aligned, crosslinked & network polymers), and
-- plastic behavior (of semicrystalline polymers)
(as shown on previous slides) 48 48

49. Summary • Dislocations are observed primarily in metals and alloys.
• Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
• Strength of metals may be increased by:
-- decreasing grain size
-- solid solution strengthening
-- precipitate hardening
-- cold working
• A cold-worked metal that is heat treated may experience
recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth – its properties
will be altered.