1. AICE AS-Level Psych Mr. Meyers & Dr. Alper 2014-2015
Unit 1:
Approaches to Psychology & Research Methodology

2. I. Research Methods in General
A. Generally speaking, is the approach to which investigator(s) use to examine a particular topic
B. What do you need? A purpose of the study, research question(s), (null)hypothesis(es), a theoretical basis, sampling factors, ethics
C. Accomplished primarily through quantitative data, qualitative data, or a “mixed-methods” designs incorporating both data collection methods

3. II. Experimental Methods
A. An experiment is
1. one of the 5 main methods we will study.
2. where the independent variable (IV) is the factor thought to be the cause and the dependent variable (DV) is the effect.
3. where ideally the participants (Ps)are randomly assigned to exp & control groups

4. II. Experimental Methods
B. A LABORATORY EXPERIMENT is
1. a type of study where conditions are controlled and an IV is manipulated to determine cause and effect
2. probably the most common form of research-
3. different from field and natural experiments in that the subjects can truly be randomly assigned to each condition.

5. III. Experimental Methods
4. can use large and expensive scientific equipment like brain scans
5. Examples of lab studies include
a. Langlois because the babies were randomly assigned to the presentation condition and the attractiveness of the face was the manipulated variable
b. The Maguire study because it used a PET Scan machine

6. II. Experimental Methods
5. Advantages of Lab Studies include
a. manipulation of variables makes determining cause and effect easier.
b. more control of extraneous variables
c. the use of standardized procedures and operationalized variables make replication easier.

7. II. Experimental Methods
6. Disadvantages include
a. too much control can create artificial conditions which in turn produce artificial results
b. the process can seem dehumanizing as if the subjects are lab rats to be tested.
C. A FIELD EXPERIMENT is
1. - conducted in more natural environment

8. II. Experimental Methods
. 2. an experiment where subjects may not know they are being observed.
3. Examples include
a. Piliavin because the study takes place on the NY subway
b. Nelson because the study takes place in a pre-school.

9. II. Experimental Methods
4. Advantages include
a. the fact that it may tell us more about real life because the behaviors are “natural.”
b. the fact that it maintains many of the features of an experiment including the IV and DV.
5. Disadvantages include
a. because less control is exerted it is more difficult to determine cause and effect.
b. may be difficult to replicate

10. II. Experimental Methods
D. A NATURAL EXPERIMENT is
1. one in which the IV occurs naturally such as age or gender.
2. an experiment without true random assignment because you cannot randomly assign a variable that occurs naturally

11. II. Experimental Methods
3. Examples include
a. the study by Baron-Cohen because the IV is whether or not the subjects have autism.
b. the Billington study because the IV is the subjects gender and choice of college major.
4. Advantages include
a. The features of an experiment are retained for the most part.
b. Behavior is more natural.

12. II. Experimental Methods
5. Disadvantages
a. It may be impossible to infer cause and effect
b. May be difficult to replicate.

13. CUE QUESTIONS
1. For each of the 3 methods list 1 additional strengths and weaknesses listed in your review book pages 66-68
2. Write 5 T/F type questions that differentiate between the 3 types of experiments (use this lecture and the review book)
3.Sample AICE Question:
a. Describe one characteristic of a Natural experiment (2)
b. Explain one weakness of this method. (2)

14. Methodology Lecture 2

15. III. Experimental Designs & Controls
A. A Repeated Measures design is a design where each participant takes place in both (or more) conditions of an experiment.
1. For example if a researcher is examining two different study methods each participant would try both methods and be quizzed after each with the scores being compared within the same subject

16. III. Experimental Designs & Controls
2. In AICE we will study several studies using repeated measures such as
a. Dematte which had each participant rate a face after smelling different odors.
b. Langlois which had each participant see every face (attractive and unatractive)
3. Advantages of repeated measures
a. Controls participant variables because every participant is exposed to ALL levels of the IV

17. III. Experimental Designs & Controls
b. Requires less Ps because each participant serves as his own control group
4. Disadvantages of Repeated measures.
a. Some variables can not be repeated, you can’t make someone do a task as male then as a female
b. May require replicated equipment or word lists which can lead to increased errors.

18. III. Experimental Designs & Controls
B. Independent Measures (AKA Independent Groups) is a design where each participant is in just one group, experimental or control so that each participant only gets one level of the IV.
1. Examples of Independent measures of design
a. Baron-Cohen because each group’s scores were compared against each other.

19. III. Experimental Designs & Controls
b. In the Schacter and Singer study each participant was only with one actor, either angry or funny.
2. Advantages of Ind measures designs
a. Only participate once so no ordering effects
b. Because the Ps only participate once it is less likely that they will guess the purpose of the experiment and change their behavior.

20. III. Experimental Designs & Controls
3. Disadvantages of Ind Measures Designs
a. 2x the number of Ps needed
b. Doesn’t control for participant variables.
C. Matched Pair design – where Es try to match as many subject variables as possible such as age, ability or some other characteristic.

21. 1. Examples include 2. Adv of Matched pairs
a. Bandura matched the children in his experiment based on their previously established level of aggression
b. Baron-Cohen matched his Ps based on level of IQ.
2. Adv of Matched pairs
a. Participant variables are controlled because they are matched.
b. Achieves this without the ordering effects of repeated measures.

22. D. Experimental Controls
3. Disadv of Matched pairs
a. Can Es really match across all subject variables
b. Can be expensive and time consuming
D. Experimental Controls
1. Confounding variables = factors in the environment that are uncontrolled that may impact the results of the experiment

23. III. Experimental Designs & Controls
2. There are 3 types of confounding variables that we will examine, situational variables, experimenter variables and participant variables.
3. Situational variables = concern the environment such as time of day, location etc. For example the Piliavin study was done in the subway during regular riding hours…could there be situational variables here?

24. III. Experimental Designs & Controls
4. Experimenter Variables are variables where the very presence of the Es may cause problems.
a. Demand characteristics = occur when the Ps guess the purpose of the experiment. To control for this Es use a single blind technique to keep the Ps blind to what is expected of them.

25. III. Experimental Designs & Controls
b. Experimenter bias occurs when the Es consciously or unconsciously sways the results of the experiment. This is controlled by using the double blind procedure whereby not only are the subjects blinded but the Es do not know which group the Ps are in.
5. Participant variables = occur as a result of differences between the abilities or motivations of the Ps

26. Cues
Cue 4 List one more advantage and disadvantage for each of the designs.
Cue 5. Write 5 T/F questions about controls
Cue 6. AICE style question
Bandura used a matched pair design, what is one advantage and one disadvantage of using this sampling technique? (4)

27. Methodology Video Lecture 3
Controls and Non-experimental Methods

28. III. Experimental Designs & Controls
6. Examples of studies with and without strong controls.
a. Bandura had strong control from using matched pairs down to making sure the toys in the room were in the exact same spot for each subject.
b. In the study by Rosenhan where psychologists entered mental hospitals as patients unknown to the staff, there were essentially no controls.

29. III. Experimental Designs & Controls
7. Advantages of using controls
a. Better able to extrapolate cause and effect relationships because more extraneous variables are controlled.
b. More replicable
8. Disadvantages of using controls
a. Too many controls may make the behavior unnatural reducing ecological validity
b. Too many controls may increase demand characteristics

30. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
A. Self-Report methods ask the subjects themselves to report on their feelings, memories or experiences.
1. Questionnaires – a form of self-report whereby the Ps read the questions themselves and fill out answers on paper or using a computer.

31. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
a. Two types of questions include open and closed ended. Open-ended can gather more qualitative data (rich details) while close-ended (yes/no, t/f, m/c or number scale questions) provide more quantitative (numeric) data.
b. Close-ended questions often use a LIKERT scales like 1 to 7 with 1 very unlikely or completely disagree and 7 very likely or completely agree.

32. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
c. One example of a study using a questionnaire was done by Billington who studied how gender and SQ/EQ scores predicted college majors.
2. Interviews = self-report methods where the Es ask the questions
a. Structured interviews use pre-prepared questions and all the Ps receive the same questions in the same order with no variation.

33. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
b. Unstructured interviews do not use pre-prepared questions. Questions are determined by how the discussion goes.
c. Semi-structured interviews contain some of both of the above. They often start with pre-prepared questions but then allow the Es to go off on tangents based on the Ps answers.

34. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
d. Face-to-face interviews do not allow the Ps to remain anonymous and neither do telephone interviews.
e. Examples of studies using interviews include Loftus and Pickrell’s study on memory where they interviewed the Ps about childhood experiences.

35. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
f. Adv of Self-reports
Ps can express feelings and explain their behavior.
Data can be rich
Closed questions are easy to score
g. Disadvantages of Self-reports
Closed-ended limit what the Ps can say
Ps might give answers that are socially desirable meaning what they think the Es want to hear.

36. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
B. Observations – data collected by watching Ps with the aim of recording the behavior observed.
1. Controlled Observation – takes place in a controlled environment such as a lab. Ps given a task and Es record data

37. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
2. Natural Observation – takes place in a natural environment. The P’s should be unaware that they are be observed by the Es
3. Participant Observation – takes place in a natural environment but the Es actually become part of the community

38. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
4. Examples of observation
a. Controlled Observation = Bandura observed kids playing with toys and recorded aggressive behavior in a lab setting.
b. Natural Observation = Piliavin subway study because Es observed if Ps on the subway would help someone who fell.

39. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
c. Participant Observation = Rosenhan where Es pretended to be patients in a mental hospital.
5. Recording Observational Data
a. Unstructured – the Es just record everything they see the Ps doing.

40. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
b. Structured – the E’s have a specific idea of what behavior they are looking for and some method of recording it like a tally sheet.
Event sampling records every time they see a specific behavior
Time sampling = records at specific time sequences such as every minute.

41. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
6. Advantages of Observation
a. Behavior can be more natural especially in naturalistic or participant observation
b. The data can be rich and qualitative.
7. Disadvantages of observation
a. P’s don’t get a chance to explain why they behaved in a certain way.
b. Might be difficult to replicate esp in naturalistic and participant observations

42. CUES
Cue 7. If you wanted to get a large sample of people’s opinion which of the self-report techniques in this lecture would you use.
Cue 8. You are interested in the gang initiation procedures of a motorcycle gang, which of the observation techniques would you use?

43. Methodology Video Lecture 4
Controls and Non-experimental Methods

44. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
C. Case Studies = a detailed piece of research involving a single unit (a person or small cohesive group).
1. Gives rich deep detail
2. Usually conducted over longer periods of time
3. Examples of Case studies
a. Freud studied a little boy named Hans who had a phobia of horses. He studied him over several years.

45. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
b. The study by Thigpen and Cleckley on the case of Eve, a woman with several personalities.
4. Advantages of Case studies
a. Some times difficult to get a large number of people or a unique sample like a serial killer.
b. Studied over time so gets a more detailed picture

46. IV. Non-Experimental Methods
5. Disadvantages
a. Rarely produce much quantitative (numerical) data.
b. Relationships between Es and Ps can become very close and thus skew the data collected.

47. V. Methodological Issues
A. Validity
1. Ecological Validity = are the results valid to real life?
a. Studies with low eco validity can’t be generalized because they are not true to real life
b. Can depend on the location (labs = less eco validity) or the task they are asked to do.
c. Experimental realism = do the subject believe the task they are doing is real?

48. V. Methodological Issues
d. Examples of high and low eco validity in studies
The study by Mann used videos of real criminals being interviewed by real police in real police stations facing serious criminal charges.
Dematte – a study on smell and attractiveness done in a lab while staring at a monitor of images not people who were present in the room.
e. Advantages of high Eco Validity
More likely to behave normally
Less likely to have demand characteristics

49. V. Methodological Issues
f. Disadvantages
May be impossible to design
More real situations could be dangerous or unethical
Less replicable
2. Other types of validity
a. Construct validity = how well does the measure you created (IQ) fit with the theoretical ideas behind it.
b. Criterion Validity = How well it compares up against some other measure

50. V. Methodological Issues
c. Predictive validity = does it predict what it is supposed to predict? For example do SAT scores predict college GPA?
d. Face Validity = does the test seem to measure what it is supposed to measure? Ex do the questions on online quizzes really reveal things about your personality?

51. V. Methodological Issues
B. Reliability
1. Answers the question, how consistent are your results? If you run the test again will the Ps score the same?
2. Ways to assess reliability
a. Test-retest = give the test once then after a waiting period test again and compare results

52. V. Methodological Issues
b. Split-half = give a test where the odd/even items match and then compare the items against each other.
3. Reliability of observations
a. How do you know if the observers are accurately recording the data?
b. Inter-rater reliability = compare the results of two or more raters viewing the same behavior.

53. V. Methodological Issues
4. Studies that refer to reliability
a. The studies on child aggression by Bandura and the study on lying by Mann both refer to inter-rater reliability
b. The study by Loftus is all about showing that memories are not reliable.

54. V. Methodological Issues
C. Sampling
1. How do you choose participants for the experiment?
a. Opportunity/convenience sample = using a pool of subjects that are easy to find or use such as using a group of students at a preschool.
Quick and easy to get
May not be representative of the general population

55. V. Methodological Issues
b. Self-selecting = the Ps, volunteer and sign up to participate in the experiment.
Often recruited using advertisements in the newspapers/magazines or online
Pos. Can be easy to obtain
Pos. Useful for obtaining a particular population
Neg. people who volunteer may be different from those who don’t
Neg. People may not see the advert.

56. V. Methodological Issues
c. Random Samples = every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
Pos. More generalizable because more representative
Neg. More costly and time consuming

57. CUES
Cue 9. Use the Oxford Review Book Pdf on issues to define and identify strengths and weakness of
a. Snapshot studies
b. Longitudinal studies
c. Quantitative vs qualitative studies
Cue 10. Write at least 1 question you have about the material we have covered so far.

58. Methodology Video Lecture 5
Controls and Non-experimental Methods

59. VI. Ethical Concerns A. AICE terminology
1. Harm = does it pose the possible issues to participants below?
a. Loss of self-esteem
b. Risks should be no greater than in everyday life
c. Giving advice or referral is a vital concern
2. Informed Consent= details (as best as possible) are given to Ps about the study
1. Ps should give consent
2. Ps should know what the average man would want to know.

60. VI. Ethical Concerns
3. Deception= should not be mislead without strong justification
a. Can be relatively harmless in most cases
b. Sometimes is necessary
c. Debriefing is vital
4. Use of children
a. Provide the emotional, physical and psychological safety of the child
b. Should be in the child’s interest
c. Parental consent and IRB approval necessary

61. VI. Ethical Concerns 5. Use of Animals d. They should have RTW
e. Confidentiality and Anonymity explained in child’s terms
5. Use of Animals
a. Cost/Benefit analysis
b. Avoid discomfort of animals (except cats of course)
c. Minimize the # of participants

62. VI. Ethical Concerns
6. Right to Withdrawal = participants must be given the right to leave the experiment at any time without penalty.
7. Confidentiality = must keep identity and confidential information safe from release.
8. Debrief = the participants must be debriefed at the end of the exp

63. VII. Issues and Debates in Psych
A. Issues
1. Application to everyday life
a. Is the study useful to human welfare
b. Can be difficult to create ethical useful experiments
2. Ethnocentric Bias
a. Some studies do to the sample or the way they are designed are inherently biased towards the E’s own ethnicity
b. Some researchers set out to study ethnocentric bias such as discrimination.

64. VII. Issues in Psychology
B. Debates
1. Nature Vs. Nurture
a. Nature = human behavior determined by inherited factors. Development is driven by biological factors and maturation
b. Nurture = The influence of environmental factors including learning. Looks at lifetime experiences that may impact behavior.

65. VIII. Issues in Psychology
2. Attribution Theory
a. Situational vs Dispositional attributions.
b. Behavior is either due to the situation or some internal quality in the person doing the observed behavior.
3. Reductionism vs Holism
a. Reductionism = any attempt to reduce complex phenomenon to more basic components. A scientific viewpoint based on observation.

66. VIII. Issues in Psychology
b. Holism = Study a system as a whole as opposed to smaller parts. Allows for a fuller picture of behavior.
When comparing the two think of how a test shows your performance on a given day (reductionism) whereas your semester grade examines your performance over time and may take into account outside factors impacting your performance such as your physical or mental health.

67. VIII. Issues in Psychology
4. Freewill Vs. Determinism
a. Freewill = Individuals are active in determining their behavior (this would be a more holistic view point)
b. Determinism = All behavior is predictable. Individuals do not have control over their behavior. More reductionist as behavior is controlled by factors such as biology

68. CUES
Cue 11: Describe two studies from the Oxford review book that illustrate good and bad ethics.
Cue 12: List 2 adv. and 2 disadv. of conducting UNETHICAL studies
Cue 13: From the review book explain what are psychometrics measures?
Cue 14: From the review book list 2 adv. and 2 disadv. of using children

69. IX. Approaches in Psychology
A. Cognitive Approach
1. Define- the cognitive approach examines mental processes such as memory, perception, understanding, thinking, and reasoning.
A. it looks at humans as complex computers
2. Strengths of the Cognitive Approach
A. use of experimental methodology in most cases
B. approach centers on the mind, a central aspect in understanding human psychology
C. it examines our decisions and is becoming more scientific with the advancement in technologies

70. IX. Approaches in Psychology
A. Cognitive Approach
3. Weaknesses of the Cognitive Approach
A. though advancing, it is still seen to be ‘less scientific’- many have simply guessed or inferred how people think
B. idea of the human mind is like a computer is reductionist (leaves out social, emotional, & behavioral)
C. the approach often fails to account for indidividual differences

71. IX. Approaches in Psychology
B. Developmental Approach
1. Define- examines change over time (emotional, moral, behavioral, social, etc)
2. Strengths of the Developmental Approach
A. emphasizes growth & change and how an early life experience may be influential at a later time
B. provides info on how children learn & understand various information (and thus how to teach & raise)
C. can help to add to the nature/nurture debate
D. provides info into changes from childhood to adulthood and/or adulthood into old age

72. IX. Approaches in Psychology
B. Developmental Approach
3. Weaknesses of the Developmental Approach
A. in studying development, longitudinal studies can be time-consuming whereas snapshot studies may not provide enough information for the topic at hand
B. cannot always generalize results across groups
C. cannot generalize results from children and assume that as an adult the same behavior would occur
D. always the issues of ethics when studying children

73. IX. Approaches in Psychology
C. Physiological Approach
1. Define-explores human behavior & experience by looking at people as if they were biological machines
2. Strengths of the Physiological Approach
A. generally the most scientific (as studies often use machines for measurement)
B. uses the experimental method and more controls in trying to determine cause & effect
C. use of recording devices (like EEG) more reliable

74. IX. Approaches in Psychology
C. Physiological Approach
3. Weaknesses of the Physiological Approach
A. often reductionist- cannot reduce complex behaviors, emotions, etc. to a single aspect
B. findings often show correlations, but cannot definitively show cause & effect
C. often omits qualitative data, that could explain more

75. IX. Approaches in Psychology
D. Social Approach
1. Define- looks to explain human behavior through social interaction & perceptions of others
2. Strengths of the Social Approach
A. can help to explain behavior in social situations
B. tends to be holistic in looking at different levels of explanations

76. IX. Approaches in Psychology
D. Social Approach
3. Weaknesses of the Social Approach
A. results often lack generalizability depending on culture, race, socio-economic status, etc.
B. issues of controlling variables as examining social behavior is complex
C. issues of distinguishing between situational and dispositional explanations

77. IX. Approaches in Psychology
E. Individual Differences Approach
1. Define- acknowledges & examines differences in people such as intelligence, life experience, disorders, etc. and
2. Strengths of the Individual Differences Approach
A. takes a more idiographic approach (rather than nomothetic) in focusing on one’s uniqueness
B. approach is more interested in individual differences rather than making generalizations

78. IX. Approaches in Psychology
E. Individual Differences Approach
3. Weaknesses of the Individual Differences Approach
A. may have limited generalizability and thus the findings may not apply or be useful to many others
B assumes that there is a ‘normal’ type of person, even though it is difficult to define or recognize
C. can be difficult to conduct research on the topic
D. may raise ethical issues in studying those who are different (treated as lab rats, stress-inducing questions, etc.)