1. Gender and crime

2. Statistics Men are 11x more likely to go to prison
Men are 3x more likely to be taken to court and to be convicted
Female offenders were generally more likely than males to have mitigating factors (such as appearance of genuine remorse, the age of the offender, the offender having caring responsibilities and the lack of previous convictions) applied to their sentence
Male offenders were less likely to have any of these taken into account, especially in relation to having caring responsibilities

3. Crimes of genders
Women less criminal than men, less likely they are going to be caught
Kind of crimes women commit are utilitarian eg fraud forgery theft stolen goods, almost half of convictions are shoplifting, crimes that are considered to have no victims. May link into their caring stereotype wouldn’t steal from a member of the community who also has a family they need to support
Women are slightly less likely to be a victim of personal crimes eg burglary, violent crimes. Men are much more likely to be of violence eg masculity, status frustration, competitive nature of them, show theyre real men
Women more likely to be victims of domestic violence and sexual abuse (a03: dark figure of crime) link with masculinity, power relationships. Mf: alienation
A03: either women don’t indulge in criminality at the same extent as men carry out more serious crimes or female crime is underestimated by official statistics

4. Biological explanations for crime

5. Female: cowie et al
Found that in general the differences between the sexes could be explained by sex linked genes. The female model of personality= more timid, more lacking in enterprise, may guard against delinquency
Theorists who feel that such behaviour is biologically determined interpret female delinquents as not merely adopting behaviour more usually associated with males but as being chromosomally genetically abnormal
In the 80s came the first mention of premenstrual tension (PMT) in criminal cases based on the theory that the stress caused by menstruation could cause women to act irrationally and in such instances they could not be held responsible for their actions

6. Parsons: sex theory: female and male
Parsons suggested that changes in the structure and roles of the modern industrial family have led to a female dominated context of primary socialisation
The adult sphere of influence is that of the home and the family, because the dominant adult male directs his time and energy to the occupational sphere
Differential socialisation
Female:
Socialisation: realising and learning what it is their role in society is, not necessarily to be a breadwinner or to commit crime
Women are more caring and nurturing and are more likely the one to look after children. They make a rational decision by weighing up the risk of being caught what they would lose. The natural role of women is to be less criminal as she is able to identify with the correct sex role during up bringing
Women more likely to commit crimes when don’t involve the use of violence, physical strength of agility, since they haven’t been trained to develop such skills
Girls are more closely supervised than boys and are taught to adopt passive and domesticated behaviour
Males:
The male child is likely to experience status anxiety because he has difficulty in identifying with the correct sex due to his father spending most time in the occupational sphere. Parsons suggests that this status anxiety may lead to exaggerated masculine behaviour which may be channelled into delinquency
Boys are allowed more freedom and are encouraged to be aggressive, ambitious and extrovert

7. Evaluation of biological explanations to crime
Such views have been criticised for its biological assumptions, as it assumes that women play the expressive roles and males the instrumental roles
This may not be the case. Dual earner families are on the rise as the ‘new man’ actively participates more in family life

8. Why female crime rates are low
From a feminist perspective

9. Heidensohn (radical): patriarchal control (3 types of control)
Radical feminists like heidensohn claim that womens lower crime rates can be explained in terms of patriarchy. She claims that both in the private and public sphere men exert power and social control over women
She argues that the consequence of that is that women have fewer opportunities to commit crime and acts of deviance
Patriarchal societies control women far more than men and primary socialisation is the key to creating social control/ expectations (eg expectations to be passive/obedient) women should be doing other things rather than participating in criminal activity

10. 3 types of control Control at home Control in public
Womens domestic role with its constant round of the housework and childcare, imposes severe restrictions on their time and movement and confines them to the house for long periods of time, reducing opportunities to offend
Women who try to reject their domestic role may find that their partners impose it by force (domestic violence)
Dobash and dobash: many violent attacks are as a result from mens dissatisfaction with their wives performance of domestic duties
Pahl: husband controlled pooling: men also exercise control through their financial power eg by denying women sufficient funds for leisure activities, thereby restricting their time outside the home
Daughters are also subject to parental control, girls are less likely to stay out late. As a result they develop a ‘bedroom culture’- socialising at home with friends- parents too scared for them to go out- may get raped etc
Women are controlled in public places by the threat or fear of male violence against them, especially sexual violence
The sensationalist media reporting of rape adds to womens fear
Females control their fear by dressing respectably; otherwise they may get a bad reputation. They also avoid going into pubs for fear of being labelled as sexually ‘loose’ or even prostitutes, hence they don’t go frequently to places where street crime occurs

11. 3 types of control Control at work
Womens behaviour at work is controlled by male supervisors and managers. Sexual harassment at work is widespread and helps keep women in their place
Women could also commit fewer criminal acts because of their career expectations. Despite legislative and social changes since the beginning of the century, women still have career expectations that are largely defined in terms of marriage and motherhood
Throughout womens lives their activities are severely limited and restricted, therefore womens expectations are easily satisfied. Males generally have career expectations which are independent of home and marriage ie directed towards occupational and economic roles
Womens subordinate position at work reduces their opportunity to engage in major criminal activity

12. Evaluation of heidensohn
Patriarchy can cause crime as it can push women into crimes such as prostitution as women are more likely to experience inequality in the workplace
Female crime is underestimated by crime statistics it can be argued that women are in a low risk category simply because they fail to adequately fill the generally shared stereotype of the criminal ie male. As a result of this stereotype, police and courts have different expectations of the behaviour of women, and they are more likely to escape identification, and if they are identified they are more likely to be dealt with informally by the police eg greater use of social services

13. Why some women commit crime while others don’t

14. Carlen: women and crime – why some do/do not turn to crime
In a study of 39 women who had been convicted of crime, 32 had always been in poverty (lacked class deal) and most had either been in care or had experienced some form of sexual violence (lacking the gender deal)
Carlen concluded that for these women, crime was a rational response to the lack of class and/or gender deals and was the only route to a decent living

15. Carlen went on to state that there are two ways in which women are ‘manipulated’ into conforming. She termed these the gender deal and class deal
The class deal (financial security)
The gender deal (emotional attachment to family life)
Refers to the material rewards that arise from the working in paid employment, enabling women to purchase things like consumer goods and enjoy a respectable life and home
Refers to the rewards that arise from fulfilling their role in the family and home, with material and emotional support from a male breadwinner

16. Most women accept their gender and class roles and achieve the deals and rewards and security from them – thus they conform
However, to some women because of things like material and cultural deprivation, unemployment and a lack of family through being brought up in care, or abusive partners
Such women may make a rational decision to choose crime: such a choice has few costs, as they have little to lose (eg money, family, status, reputation) but at least crime, like shoplifting or fraud, offers potential benefits like money, good and consumer goods which are not otherwise available through the approved or legitimate class and gender deals
Have no choice but to

17. Alder: the liberation thesis - why women turn to crime
Argues that as women become more liberated they will turn to crime, begun to adopt male roles they will no longer commit traditional female crimes like shoplifting and prostitution
They will have more opportunities to commit white collar crime as they have senior positions at work
Women are acting differently to previously- becoming more like men- a new type of femininity
This is supported by official crime statistics that show that female crime has increased including previously male crimes like embezzlement and armed robbery
More recently there has been the growth of girl gangs, whereby girls are more likely engaged with risk taking

18. Why women have lower levels of crime and why men might commit crime
Extra one
Why women have lower levels of crime and why men might commit crime

19. Pollack: the chivalry thesis
Chivalry: men are socialised to look after women as they are considered the weaker sex
Within the cjs the judges and police are predominantly male. Pollack argues men are socialised to act in a chivalrous way towards women in the legal system. They are more lenient with women and so their crimes are less likely to be apparent in crime statistics
This is backed up by evidence from self report studies and relates to low level crimes such as shoplifting and speeding
Thus, she claims that women are just as deviant and criminal as men, but they are far more skilful at avoiding apprehension. Also suggests that a major involvement of women in criminal acts involves the instigation of crimes and manipulation of men into them
As men are socialised into this idea they may also believe the crimes they commit are to look after their wife and family eg shoplifting- providing food for the family as the man of the house
Evidence of the chivalry thesis: women are given more cautions rather than prosecutions, are less likely to go to court, men are more likely to get longer sentences

20. Evaluation of pollack
Offence almost entirely down to seriousness of offense- men might just be committing more serious crimes
Female imprisonment is rising
Bias against women: rape victims – victim blaming eg keep your legs shut, shouldn’t have been wearing that/ drinking, no doesn’t always mean no

21. Why do men commit crime

22. Messerschmidt
Rejects the biological accounts of crime, stating that studies of aggression in men don’t necessarily mean that men are naturally aggressive
He cites societies where men are not particularly aggressive and instead are mainly passive
Masculinity is central to explain crime. This is because it is the main motivation behind male crime as it involves a desire by men to show that they are macho and are ‘real men’
According to messerschmidt, masculinity is about gendered social action. From this view, males chatting to their mates and a man having sex with his female partner are all trying to accomplish their masculinity
Some men are not in the position to accomplish certain types of masculinity and must find alternative ways to be ‘real men’
This is the struggle for ‘normative masculinity’ and to be approved by society that you are indeed a real man- social construction of what a man is meant to do

23. Messerschmidt divides masculinity into two main types
Hegemonic masculinity
Subordinated masculinity
Is the most dominant, prestigious form that most men wish to accomplish
Is defined though: work in the paid labour market, the subordination of women
Are less powerful an carry lower status
This includes gay men who have no desire to accomplish hegemonic masculinity
Lower class and ethnic minorities want to achieve hegemonic masculinity but lack the resources to do so
- Criminal behaviour can be used as a resource for asserting masculinity. Masculinity is central to explaining crime. This is because it is the main motivation being male crime as it involves a desire by men to show that they are masculine

24. Messerschmidt analyses why different groups of male turn to crime in an attempt to be masculine
White w/c boys
White m/c boys
They tend to feel that scool is emasculating- seeing academic success as only accessible to m/c
Masculinity is centred on physical aggression. Their masculinity can be expressed through opposing the imposition of authority by teachers and through violence against gay men, non- whites or others who fail to match their concept of what it means to be masculine
They tend to enjoy academic success and display sporting prowess
However, characteristics such as independence, dominance and control have to be given up in school
Therefore white m/c boys are partially emasculated (their masculinity is undermined). This means that they have to remain relatively subservient to school teachers
However, outside of schools, they demonstrate characteristics that are repressed within school eg engaging in pranks, excessive drinking and acts of vandalism

25. Lower w/c ethnic minority boys
They tend to have great problems with finding reasonably paid secure employment
They do not expect to be able to express their masculinity as breadwinner by holding down a steady job
They have little change of asserting their masculinity through success or work
The focus of these young mens lives is the street. They use violence inside and outside school to express their masculinity
Ethnic minority boys become involved in serious property crimes than white w/c youths

26. Evaluation of Messerschmidt
Tends to reinforce stereotypical and negative views of men in general
This is particularly true of w/c and non white men in particular
It doesn’t consider men who might commit politicly motivated crimes in a fight against oppressive government
Connell: Says that Messerschmidt exaggerates the importance of masculinity in the explanation of crime and seems to argue that nearly all crimes committed by men are an expression of their masculinity, it is wrong to assume that this is the sole reason for these males committing crimes