2. Using These Slides
These PowerPoint slides have been designed for use by students and instructors using the Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity textbook by Conrad Kottak. These files contain short outlines of the content of the chapters, as well as selected photographs, maps, and tables. Students may find these outlines useful as a study guide or a tool for review. Instructors may find these files useful as a basis for building their own lecture slides or as handouts. Both audiences will notice that many of the slides contain more text than one would use in a typical oral presentation, but it was felt that it would be better to err on the side of a more complete outline in order to accomplish the goals above. Both audiences should feel free to edit, delete, rearrange, and rework these files to build the best personalized outline, review, lecture, or handout for their needs.

3. Contents of Student CD-ROM
Student CD-ROM—this fully interactive student CD-ROM is packaged free of charge with every new textbook and features the following unique
tools:
How To Ace This Course:
Animated book walk-through
Expert advice on how to succeed in the course (provided on video by the University of Michigan)
Learning styles assessment program
Study skills primer
Internet primer
Guide to electronic research
Chapter-by-Chapter Electronic Study Guide:
Video clip from a University of Michigan lecture on the text chapter
Interactive map exercise
Chapter objectives and outline
Key terms with an audio pronunciation guide
Self-quizzes (multiple choice, true/false, and short-answer questions with feedback indicating why your answer is correct or incorrect)
Critical thinking essay questions
Internet exercises
Vocabulary flashcards
Chapter-related web links
Cool Stuff:
Interactive globe
Study break links

4. Contents of Online Learning Center
Student’s Online Learning Center—this free web-based student supplement features many of the same tools as the Student CD-ROM (so students can access these materials either online or on CD, whichever is convenient), but also includes:
An entirely new self-quiz for each chapter (with feedback, so students can take two pre-tests prior to exams)
Career opportunities
Additional chapter-related readings
Anthropology FAQs
PowerPoint lecture notes
Monthly updates

5. Modern Humans
This chapter discusses the emergence of the genus Homo. It discusses the dispersal of Homo erectus beyond Africa and the emergence of Anatomically Modern Humans.
C h a p t e r 7

6. Early Homo
Finds in east Africa indicate the Homo habilis was not very different from the australopithecines in terms of body size and shape.
The earliest Homo erectus remains indicate rapid biological change.
The fossil record for the transition from H. habilis to H. erectus supports the punctuated equilibrium model of evolution.
H. erectus was considerably taller and had a larger brain than H. habilis.

7. Early Homo
Artists representation of a Homo habilis band as it might have existed two million years ago.
Photo Credit: Richard Schlecht/National Geographic Society

8. Early Homo
Photograph of Nariokotome boy, an early Homo erectus found near Lake Turkana, Kenya.
Photo Credit: Kenneth Garrett/National Geographic

9. Gradual and Rapid Change
Gradualism is a model of evolution proposing that most species were produced by the gradual, steady effects of natural selection operating on whole populations.
Punctuated equilibrium is a model proposing that most species were produced by genetic drift, occurring in relatively quick leaps (of 50,000 years, or so) interspersing long periods of relative stasis (of several million years).
Transitional fossils, such as those documenting the development of heavy grinding structures among the australopithecines, are thought to support gradualism.
An absence of transitional fossils, despite the presence of sequentially related species, is used as evidence supporting punctuated equilibrium.

10. Gradual and Rapid Change
The early Homo fossil sequence displays rapid change and therefore supports punctuated equilibrium.
One possible key to explanation such rapid change may lie in H. erectus’ greater reliance on cultural means of adaptation.
With the emergence of H. erectus there is a rapid proliferation in the number and diversity of tools being made.
Cultural treatment of food began to select for smaller dentition.
Cultural manipulation of the environment allowed erectus to exploit a wider array of environments.

11. Emergence of Modern Humans
Species
Dates
Known Distribution
Important Sites
Brain Size
(cm3)
Homo sapiens sapiens
100,000 B.P. to present
world-wide
Beijing, New York, London, Nairobi
1,350cm3
H.sapiens neanderthalensis
130,000 to 30,000 B.P.
Europe + SW Asia
La Chapelle aux Saints
1,430cm3
Archaic H. sapiens
300,000 to 35,000 B.P.
Africa, Europe, Asia
Kabwe, Arago, Dali, Mount Carmel caves
1,135cm3
Homo erectus
1.6 m.y.a. to 300,000 B.P.
Africa + Asia, Europe
East+West Turkana, Olduvai, Zoukoudian
900cm3
Pan troglodytes
modern
central Africa
Gombe, Mahale
390cm3

12. Paleolithic Tools Three Paleolithic Divisions
Lower Paleolithic (Homo erectus)
Middle Paleolithic (archaic Homo sapiens, including Neandertals)
Upper Paleolithic (Homo sapiens sapiens, up to 15,000 years ago)
Technique Differentiation
Paleolithic stone tool-making was marked by advancing refinement of technique, recognizable groupings of which are called tool-making traditions.
A basic distinction is between core and flake tools.
The primary tradition of the Lower Paleolithic is the Acheulian.

13. H. erectus: Culture/Biology Synergy
Acheulian tools and essentially modern bipedalism aided hunting.
H. erectus’ average brain size (1000 cc) is double that of the australopithecines.
Larger skulls select for neotony, because of the constraints bipedalism puts on the size of the birth canal.
Neotony causes a long dependency period, which allows for the emphasis on cultural transmission of information.
Dependent children create an environment which increasingly selects for interdependent social groups.

14. H. erectus: Skull
Reconstruction of one of the H. erectus fossils from Zhoukoudian, China.
Photo Credit: Courtesy of the American Museum of National History. Photo by Charles H. Cole

15. H. erectus: Acheulean Tools
Acheulian hand axes from Olorgasaile, Kenya.
Photo Credit: Jay Kelley/Anthro-Photo

16. H. erectus: Hunting and Gathering
H. erectus’ bipedalism, the—relative to the australopithecines—de-emphasis on chewing (smaller molars), and the emphasis on the front teeth (possibly for eating flesh) all suggest hunting and gathering as its primary adaptive strategy.
The skeletal evidence for hunting and gathering is supported by site remains, such as those found at Terra Amata (approximately 300,000 years ago).

17. H. erectus: Language
No evidence clearly supporting H. erectus’ use of language exists.
Kottak argues that Acheulian tools and apparent, complex hunting techniques, which do exist in the fossil record, support the possibility of rudimentary speech.

18. H. erectus: Evolution and Expansion
Major H. erectus Sites
East, West Turkana, Kenya, dated 1.6 m.y.a. (Leakey)
Upper Bed II, Olduvai, dated 1 m.y.a.
Trinil, Java, Indonesia, dated approximately 700,000 years ago (Dubois)
Zhoukoudian, China (a.k.a. “Peking Man”) is a massive site, dated 500, ,000 years ago
Europe has non-skeletal remains dating 700,000 years ago, and skeletal remains dated at 500,000
The vast environmental differences encompassed by the H. erectus sites, and the associated lack of physical variation attest to the success of culture as an adaptive strategy.

19. H. erectus: Distribution
The sites of discovery of Homo erectus and its possible maximum distribution.
Source: From Physical Anthropology and Archaeology, 5th edition, by C. J. Jolly and R. White (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995), p. 268.

20. Archaic Homo sapiens
It is likely that the Archaic Homo sapiens population was most concentrated in tropical regions, but thus far more work has been done in Europe.
Archaic Homo sapiens (300,000-35,000 B.P.) includes Homo sapiens neandertalensis (Neandertals, 130,000-35,000 years ago).
The range of Homo sapiens was even more extensive than that of Homo erectus.

21. Archaic Homo sapiens
The skull of the classic Neandertal found in 1908 at La Chapelle-aux-Saints.
Photo Credit: E.R. Degginger/Animals Animals

22. Cold-Adapted Neandertals
The combination of relatively large torso and short limbs, along with large, broad nasal passages are evidence of adaptation to a cold climate.
Neandertal front teeth were extremely large and the remains of these show evidence of wear.
The face, particularly the large brow ridge, was designed to support considerable stress on the front teeth (possibly the result of chewing animal hides).
Neandertal cranial capacity was well within (possibly exceeding) the average for H. sapiens (1350 cc.).
Later Neandertal remains show a decrease in the robustness of the front teeth and face, suggesting the use of tools (Mousterian) replaced teeth, and suggesting selection against the larger teeth (possibly due to infections in crowded jaws).

23. Neandertals in Relation to AMHs
Two basic models attempt to answer the Debate about Neandertals’ Place in Homo sapiens sapiens ancestry.
Neandertals were fully Homo sapiens, their differences constituting a minor sub-specific variation that disappeared as Neandertals were assimilated into the broader H. sapiens population.
Replacement Hypothesis: Neandertals were the product of a split within the H. erectus population, wherein one side moved into northern Europe and became Neandertals, and the other side evolved into Homo sapiens sapiens (Anatomically Modern Humans--or AMHs) in the Middle East, Africa, or Asia, and then drove Neandertals to extinction upon moving into their territories.

24. Neandertals in Relation to AMHs
Neandertals differed from AMHs in their comparatively rugged skeletons and faces, huge front teeth, larger cranial capacity, and greater sexual dimorphism.
However, these differences were exaggerated on the basis of a misinterpretation of the La Chapelle-aux-Saints find, which turned out to be the skeleton of an old Neandertal man who had suffered from osteoarthritis.
Current interpretations of the fossil evidence and dating seem to support the replacement hypothesis.

25. Drawings of H. habilis, H. erectus, and Archaic H. sapiens.
Skulls
Drawings of H. habilis, H. erectus, and Archaic H. sapiens.
Photo Credit: Luba Dmytryk/National Geographic

26. Drawings of Neandertal and H. sapiens sapiens skulls.
Photo Credit: Luba Dmytryk/National Geographic

27. Skulls
Rear views of three skulls of H. erectus and one of Archaic Homo sapiens.
Source: From Physical Anthropology and Archaeology, 5th edition, by C. J. Jolly and R. White (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995), p. 271.

28. About Eve: mtDNA Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
Only the mother contributes mtDNA to an offspring, and this occurs through cloning, thus only mutation may change the pattern of mtDNA from one generation to the next.
Researchers from Berkeley generated a computerized model of Homo evolution, based upon the average rate of mutation in known samples of mtDNA.
The model describes an evolutionary tree, at the base of which is a single female, called “Eve,” in sub-Saharan Africa 200,000 B.P., from whom all modern humans have descended.

29. About Eve: Contradictory Evidence
Other researchers have identified traits associated with particular geographic ranges that begin before “Eve” and occur continuously in those places across the change from H. erectus to H. sapiens.
The continuity of these traits contradicts the notion that “Eve-based” populations could have moved in and replaced the H. erectus populations in which the traits originated.
This counter-evidence suggests a model wherein many different H. erectus populations evolved into H. sapiens simultaneously, while gene flow ensured that the populations remained conspecific.

30. Recent DNA Evidence
Recently, researchers have been able to extract Neandertal DNA and compare it to DNA from modern humans.
The research suggests that Neandertals and AMHs were distinct groups that split apart around 600,000 years ago.
This research also indicates that Neandertals died out without leaving a genetic legacy with the AMH populations that eventually displaced them in western Europe.

31. Human Population Distribution
The known distribution of human populations at approximately 130,000 to 35,000 B.P.
Source: From Physical Anthropology and Archaeology, 5th edition, by C. J. Jolly and R. White (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995), p. 277.

32. Advances in Technology
Tool-making technology shifted from flaking (Mousterian) to the making of blades, which is much more efficient and allows for greater specialization and diversity.
An increase the distribution and number of technological remains is evidence of an overall increase in Homo’s population.
Tool Diversity:
Different tool shapes, in connection with other site remains, can be associated with specific tasks, thus giving evidence as to how ancient human populations fit in their ecological niches.
Some features of tools are not so much related to function as they are to traditions specific to a population.

33. Advances in Technology
Flaked tools from late Neandertal sites in French rock shelters.
Photo Credit: Kenneth Garrett/National Geographic Image Sales

34. Advances in Technology
Middle Paleolithic tools of the Mousterian tool-making tradition.

35. Advances in Technology
Upper Paleolithic blade-tool making technology.

36. Glacial Retreat
During the glacial period, large game hunting constituted a major feature in the adaptive strategies of most Homo populations.
Changes Due to Glacial Retreat:
The continental shelf was covered with water, creating a zone for new marine life that was accessible to humans.
Particularly in northern regions, biodiversity increased overall, as the plains of southwestern Europe were replaced by forests.
Broad spectrum revolution: as a result of the post-glacial changes, human populations’ means of exploiting their environments became correspondingly more diverse, setting the stage for food production.

37. Cave Art
Most cave paintings are concentrated in southwestern France and northern Spain.
Various magical or ritual functions have been proposed as the reason for the cave paintings: ceremonies of increase, improved hunting, rites of passage.

38. Cave Art
Cave paintings from 20,000 years ago at Vallon-Pont-d’Arc in southern France.
Photo Credit: Jean-Marie Chauvet/Sygma

39. The Mesolithic
The Mesolithic followed the Upper Paleolithic, and is also marked by the trends of diversification called the broad-spectrum revolution.
Physical Evidence:
Most known mesolithic remains are the result of archaeological research done in Europe.
Microliths are small stone tools that are typical of Mesolithic technology: fishhooks, harpoon tips, and dart tips.
The technology reflects the shift from a focus on herd game hunting (since these animals had moved north with glacial retreat) to more varied and specialized activities.

40. The Mesolithic
The Mesolithic era saw the domestication of the dog, the development of food preservation techniques, the spread of the bow and arrow, the development of wood and leather working, and actual carpentry.
Gathering:
“Broad-spectrum” changes caused gathering, rather than hunting, to become the mainstay of human economies.
Based on what we know from comparisons of modern hunting-based societies with hunter-gatherer societies, the role of women in Mesolithic subsistence economies probably increased as gathering became more important.