1. The structure of sentences
Syntax
The structure of sentences

2. Formal syntax: Learning objectives
Explain the notions “language organ” and “Universal Grammar”
Explain the similarities and differences between languages (principles and parameters)
Explain how sentences are constructed

3. Evidence for an independent language faculty:
People display a knowledge of grammar that is deeper than what they could get from the linguistic input they receive – the poverty-of-the stimulus argument
Language impairment (aphasia/Down syndrome): language independent from intelligence

4. Transformational generative grammar
Chomsky: structuralist explanations could not distinguish between sentences such as: John is easy to please and John is eager to please
While the surface structure is similar, the deep structure reveals a major difference: the implied subject in the first is John and in the second John is the object

5. Transformational generative grammar
Chomsky: structuralist grammars could not explain ambiguity which can arise from the syntactic arrangement of clauses, e.g. Stolen painting found by tree

6. Universal Grammar: Principles & parameters
People – “pre-programmed” with principles of grammar – Universal Grammar (UG)
Universal grammar has a biological basis– a language organ
Principles of UG are common across all languages
One of these principles, which is considered as an essential property of human language, is recursion: allows individuals to understand an unlimited number of sentences without memorizing each one of them (cf. poverty of stimulus)

7. Principle of recursion
Grammars are finite but they nonetheless enable individuals to produce and understand an infinite number of sentences
This is made possible through the principle of recursion
Recursion means that grammatical processes can apply more than once, which enables speakers to produce sentences of indefinite length and complexity

8. Mechanisms of recursion
Embedding: One can always add additional subordinate clauses within a frame of the sentence
e.g. This is the house that Jack built<This is the cheese that lay in the house that Jack built< This is the mouse that nibbled the cheese that lay in the house that Jack built etc.
Coordination: We can use coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or etc.) to link an indefinite number of sentences
e.g. Mary went to the airport and John went to the bus station but Joanna cancelled her trip and went to the mall.

9. Parameters of UG
Some of the principles of UG are underspecified, which means that they can be realized through different parameters in different languages
Once all the parameters have been correctly set for a particular language, then we have a grammar for this language
Example: every language must have a subject – principle (underspecified); subject can be expressed in different ways – parameter values (pronouns in English and Italian)

10. Modularity of language
Principles and parameters – part of a syntactic computational mechanism
This mechanism feeds both the articulatory (phonetic) component and the interpretative (semantic) component
Each of these components functions independently - modularity
Various modules can feed each other through interfaces
Phonetic form (PF) interface with articulatory module; Logical form (LF) – interface with the interpretative module

11. Y-model: centrality of syntax
Syntax draws information from the lexicon and “feeds” both PF and LF
PF LF
Lexicon
Syntax

12. Table of grammatical categories
Type
Word category
Examples
Phrasal category
Lexical
Noun (N)
Puppy, park
Noun Phrase (NP)
Verb (V)
Take, run, be
Verbal Phrase (VP)
Adjective (A)
Good, red, big
Adjective Phrase (AP)
Adverb (Adv)
Happily, fast
Adverb Phrase (AdvP)
Functional
Determiner (D)
This, the, a, his
Determiner Phrase (DP)
Preposition (P)
In, on, between
Prepositional Phrase (PP)
Complementizer (C)
that
Complementizer Phrase (CP

13. Lexical vs. Functional categories
Words that belong to lexical categories are semantically rich and contribute primarily to the meaning of the sentence (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions) – open category
Words in functional categories – semantically weak, and contribute more to the grammar of sentences than to the meaning (e.g. determiners) – closed category

14. Compositionality
Grammar of every language – compositional and hierarchical
Sentences are made of smaller constituents (phrases), which in turn are made up of even smaller constituents (words)

15. Compositionality: Constituency tests
1) noun replacement (A girl with a golden earring ate an apple > She ate an apple vs. *She with a golden earring ate an apple)- only an entire nominal constituent can be replaced with a pronoun
2) verb replacement (She ate an apple and so did I vs. *She ate an apple and so did I a pear)- only an entire verbal constituent can be replaced with do
Certain groups of words form close units: constituents, e.g. Nominal constituent (1) (NP=noun phrase), (2) verbal constituent (VP=verb phrase)

16. Hierarchy
Even though sentences are linear on the surface, their constituents are organized in a hierarchical way

17. Projection
Composing the structure of a sentence begins with words that belong to categories such as noun, verb, preposition, adjective, or determiner
These words – heads of phrases
Phrases are constructed bottom-up: words are drawn from a lexicon – a mental dictionary stored in people’s brain - and merged into structures
Once they are inserted into structures they project phrases (XPs) of the same category (e.g. NP, VP, DP) which form larger constituents that compose a sentence

18. Merge
Structure building begins with the predicate, which is the central element of a clause
Once a predicate projects its phrase, it has to be combined with a phrase/s of the type it needs
To do that, the grammar must have a mechanism that combines phrases
This is done by merging one phrase with another

19. Merge: example (1) Those children want a puppy
Want – a transitive verb or a two-place predicate, which means that it requires two NPs of a certain type as arguments: an agent argument and a theme argument (thematic (theta) roles)
It projects two empty positions which need to be filled by NPs (e.g. Those children - agent and a puppy - theme)
Direct object (puppy) – internal argument because it forms a closer unit with a predicate
Subject (Those children) – external argument; does not form the same unit as predicate and direct object
Substitution test: Those children want a puppy and so do I; *Those children want a puppy and so do I a cat

20. Nominal constituent merge (DP)
Each of the nominal constituents that the predicate selects is a product of a separate merge operation which consists of merging a noun and a determiner Note the nominal constituent a puppy in Example 1: The determiner a projects a determiner phrase (DP), which needs a noun phrase (NP) as its complement Since DP selects NP and not viceversa, DP is the head of the nominal constituent (e.g. a puppy)

21. DP merge
NP puppy is inserted in the complement NP node projected from D a to create DP a puppy DP NP
D: a
N: puppy

22. VP merge VP DP NP V: want D: a N: puppy
DP a puppy merges with V want to create VP want a puppy VP DP NP
V: want D: a N: puppy

23. Merge: sentence construction
So far the grammar has created a new constituent (VP) by merge
The next step is to merge the VP with the external argument (subject) to form the whole sentence
The external argument cannot be directly merged onto the VP (substitution shows that they do not form the same constituent)
We need a separate node (XP) above VP to merge the subject with

24. Tense phrase (TP)
Semantic core of the sentence is constituted by tense
Tense projects its own phrase (TP) which connects different constituents together into a sentence
T-head contains information related to tense, as well as agreement
Tense phrases provide the central “scaffolding” for a sentence, a structure to which the more meaningful lexical phrases will be attached
External argument is linked with VP through TP

25. Tense Phrase (TP) Those children want a puppy. TP DP VP those
NP want DP
children a NP
puppy

26. Tense Phrase TP takes VP as its complement
The external argument (subject) is not a complement: it does not occupy a complement position but a specifier position to the left of TP (in English)
Two syntactic levels: VP – lexical information pertaining to constituents; TP: grammatical information pertaining to the sentence (tense+agreement)
There is an even higher level of structure, which contains information pertaining to discourse: at this level, sentence type (e.g. declarative, interrogative) is encloded
This highest structural level is usually defined as CP (Complementizer phrase)

27. Complementizer phrase (CP)
The basic function of complementizers is to turn an independent sentence into a complement
Therefore each subordinate clause is headed by an additional phrase projected by the complementizer (CP)
Different types of complementizers depending on the type of subordinate clause: in declaratives, complementizers like that (I heard that those children want a puppy); in interrogtives, comps like if (He wondered if it would rain)
A CP selects a TP in this context

28. Projection of CP from that
C: that TP
those children want a puppy

29. CP in simple sentences
Matrix clauses can also be divided in different types (e.g. declarative, interrogative, exclamative)
In subordinate contexts, different types of clauses are associated with different complementizers, which means that clause type is determined at the CP level
Since matrix clauses can also be divided along the same lines, CP is also present and determines clause type in matrix contexts (even though there is no overt complementizer)

30. Adjunction
Merge joins phrases by placing one phrase into the complement or specifier of another phrase
It is also possible to merge phrases that are not complements or specifiers of their host phrase - this is called adjunction and it adds modifiers to phrases
Heads, complements, and specifiers make up the core meaning of a phrase, while adjuncts add extra description (Those little children in the park want a puppy badly)

31. Adjunction
Since adjoined phrases are different from complements and specifiers, adjunction creates a site for Merge by copying the phrasal node of the host phrase
All the adjuncts are attached to the extended structures
In this way the integral parts of a phrase,i. e. head, specifier, and complement, are distinguished from adjuncts
There are restrictions on the number of complements or specifiers we can have in the sentence but not on adjuncts: the phrasal node can be copied indefinitely

32. Adjunction VP
VP AdvP
DP badly NP
V:want D: a N:puppy

33. Movement
Besides building phrase structures, syntax can also move parts of phrase structures around, by detaching them from the position in which they were originally inserted in the structure, and moving them somewhere else

34. Movement and deletion
Movement functions by copying an item into a new location, leaving a copy in the original position (sometimes described as a trace (t).
This copy must later be deleted, because both copies cannot be pronounced at the same time
Syntax distinguishes between two types of movements: head movement (e.g. auxiliary movement in questions) and phrasal movement (e.g. wh-movement in questions)

35. Auxiliary movement
Auxiliary (Aux) movement comes into play when we want to generate a simple question in English
e.g. Does the man like movies?
The auxiliary do is originally inserted under T, acquiring tense and agreement features, and then moves to C
CP has an empty complementizer C as its head and it has a TP as its complement. Aux movement in the case of simple questions takes whatever there is under T (do+tense/agreement=does) and moves it to the previously empty head position, C

36. Illustration CP TP C does T VP DP [PRES/AGR] the man V DP like movies
Move

37. WH-movement
Wh-questions (e.g. What do you like?), unlike simple questions, exhibit two different movements to CP: head movement of the auxiliary (T-C) and phrasal movement of the wh-phrase (i.e. wh-movement)
Therefore, in questions such as “What do you like?”, CP must contain two empty positions to host the moved elements: the C-head position for the auxiliary and the specifier position for the wh-phrase

38. WH-movement
What appears after the verb like, as its complement. Like is a transitive verb and requires a direct object complement, and what stands in for the missing thing that you would like (e.g. What do you like? I like coffee).
First, aux movement applies . The auxiliary do undergoes head movement from T to C.
Then, wh-movement applies. The wh-phrase moves from its original complement position (since it replaced the complement of the verb like) to the specifier of CP.

39. WH-movement CP SpecCP What C TP do SpecTP you VP T V DP
aux movement like what
wh-movement

40. Summary Much of grammatical structure does not have to be “learned”
People “know” a lot about what is or isn’t a possible grammatical structure without having been taught, or even having had the right kind of experience to have learned it: they know it because principles of UG are innate
The principle of recursion enables individuals to produce and understand an infinite number of sentences based on a limited input (cf. Poverty of stimulus)

41. Summary
One principle of the structure of sentences – compositionality: sentences are composed of clauses and phrases, which in turn are made up of smaller clauses and phrases or words
Compositionality - achieved by projection of simple phrases from words from the mental lexicon
The phrases projected take on the lexical and functional categories of the words that project them

42. Summary
Formal syntax - based on deducing abstract grammatical principles from observing what sentences are possible and not possible, without regard to how they are used
Formal approaches insist on the centrality of syntax whithin the human language faculty; other types of approaches (e.g. functional perspectives) put greater emphasis on semantics or language usage

43. Learning objectives
Explain the notions “language organ” and “Universal Grammar”
Explain the similarities and differences between languages (principles and parameters)
Explain how sentences are constructed