1. PRICE LEVEL ACCOUNTING

2. INTRODUCTION Prices do not remain constant over a period of time.
They tend to change due to various economic conditions, inflation and deflation.
Changes in the price levels cause two type of economic conditions, inflation and deflation.
These changes in the price levels lead to inaccurate presentation of financial statements which otherwise are prepared to present the true and fair view of the company's financial health.

3. FINANCIAL STATEMENTS AND PRICE LEVEL CHANGES
The term 'financial statement' refers to two statements, i.e. the balance sheet or statement of financial position.
That reflects assets, liabilities and capital on a particular date and profit and loss account or income statement.
That shows the operating results achieved during a particular period.

4. Financial transactions are usually based on actual or historical cost concept. They reveal the impact of various transactions involved in the accounting period on the operating and financial health of the company.
But various transactions include:-
1.Current assets acquired and current liabilities incurred at different points of time in the accounting period.
2. Various expenses incurred and incomes earned at different points of time in the accounting period.
3.Various assets acquired at different points of time.

5. To sum up, the reasons for the emergence of price level accounting are as follows:-
Inaccurate presentation of financial statements during the changes in price levels.
Difficulties in replacement of fixed assets during inflation.
Inadequacy of working capital arising out of increasing price levels.
Losses arising as a result of holding monetary current assets such as cash and receivables and gains accruing from holding current liabilities as sundry creditors.

6. METHOD OR TECHNIQUES OF PRICE LEVEL ACCOUNTING
1.CURRENT PURCHASING POWER TECHNIQUE:-
Current Purchasing Power Technique of accounting requires the companies to keep their records and present the financial statements on conventional historical cost basis but if further requires presentation of supplementary statements in items of current purchasing power of currency at the end of the accounting period. The main objective of this method is to take into consideration the charges in the value of money as a result of changes in the general price levels.

7. The major weaknesses of this technique are:-
1.As it takes into account the general price index, it does not account for changes in the individual assets of the company.
2.The technique seems to be more of theoretical nature than of any practical utility.
3.In a country like India, even the price indices may not be correct and it may further cause inaccurate presentation of the financial statements.

8. MECHANISM OF PREPARING FINANCIAL STATEMENT UNDER CPP METHOD:-
(a) Conversion Technique:- Current Purchasing Power Method (CPP) requires conversion of historical figures at current purchasing power. In this method, various items of balance sheet and profit loss account are adjusted with the help of recognized general price index.
CONVERSION FACTOR = CURRENT PRICE INDEX
PREVIOUS PRICE INDEX
AT THE DATE OF EXISTING
FIGURE

9. (b)Monetary and Non-Monetary accounts (Gain or Loss on Monetary items):-
For the conversion of historical costs in terms of current purchasing power of currency, it is useful to make a distinction between :
(i) MONETARY ACCOUNTS:
i.e., money value items;
(ii)NON MONETARY ACCOUNTS:
i.e., real value items. Monetary accounts are those assets and liabilities which are not subject to reassessment of their recorded values owing to change of purchasing power of money. The amounts of such items are fixed, by contract or other wise in term of rupees, regardless of change in the general price level.

10. (c) Mid-Period Conversion:-
There are several transactions which take place throughout the year such as purchases, sales, expenses, etc. For conversion of such items, average index of the year can be taken as the one index for all such items.
(d) Adjustment of Cost of Sales and Inventory:-
As inventory is purchased in period and sold in (n+x)period, there is a time gap between purchases and sales. During this time, there might be changes in the price levels.

11. (e) Ascertainment of Profit:-
Profit under Current purchasing power (CPP) accounting can be ascertained in two ways:-
(i) Net Change Method:- This method is based on the normal accounting concept that profit is the change in equity during an accounting period. Under this method, the opening as well as closing balance sheets are converted into CPP terms by using appropriate index numbers.
(ii) Conversion of Income Method:- Under this method, the historical income statement is converted in CPP terms. Purchases, sales and other expenses which are incurred throughout the year,are converted at average index.

12. 2. REPLACEMENT COST ACCOUNTING TECHNIQUE
Replacement Cost Accounting (RCA)Technique is an improvement over Current Purchasing Power Technique(CPP).
One of the major weakness of Current Purchasing Power technique is that it does not take into account the individual price index related to the particular assets of a company.

13. DEPRECIATION AND REPLACEMENT OF FIXED ASSETS
Another problem posed by the price level changes is that how much depreciation should be charged on fixed assets. The purpose of charging depreciation is two fold-
(i)To show the true and fair view of the financial statements and the profitability of the concern.
(ii)To provide sufficient funds to replace the assets after the expiry of the life of the asset.

14. The main difficulties are as follows:-
It is not possible to find accurately the replacement cost till the replacement is actually made.
The replaced new assets are not of the same type and quality as old assets because of new developments.
Income Tax Act, 1961 does not provide for any other method than the actual cost method.

15. 3. CURRENT VALUE ACCOUNTING TECHNIQUE:
In the Current Value Accounting Technique of price level accounting all assets and liabilities are shown in the balance sheet at their current values. 
The value of the net assets at the beginning and at the end of the accounting period is ascertained and the difference in the value in the beginning and the end is termed as profit or loss, as the case may be.
In this method also, like replacement cost accounting technique, it is very difficult to determine relevant current values and there is an element of subjectivity in this technique.

16. 4. CURRENT COST ACCOUNTING TECHNIQUE:
The committee presented its report in the year 1975 and recommended the adoption of Current Cost Accounting Technique in place of Current Purchasing Power of Replacement Cost Accounting Technique for price level changes.
The crux of the current cost accounting technique is the preparation of financial statements (Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss Account) on the current values of individual items and not on the historical or original cost.

17. The essential characteristics of current cost accounting technique are as follows:
The fixed assets are shown in the balance sheet at their current values and not on historical costs.
The depreciation is charged on the current values of the fixed assets and not on original costs.
Inventories or stocks are valued in the balance sheet at their current replacement costs on the date of the balance sheet and not cost or market price whichever is lower.
The cost of goods sold is calculated on the basis of their replacement cost to the business and not on their original cost.
The surpluses arising out of revaluation are transferred to Revaluation Reserve Account and are not available for distribution as dividend to the shareholders.
In addition to the balance sheet and profit and loss account, an appropriation account and a statement of changes is prepared.

18. However, there are many difficulties in the operation of CCA technique:
(a) It is very difficult to determine the ‘value to the business’ of a real asset.
(b) There is an element of subjectivity in this technique.
(c) It does not hold good during the periods of depression.

19. Some Important Adjustments Required under the CCA Technique:
(i) Current Cost of Sales Adjustment (COSA):
Under the CCA technique, cost of sales are to be calculated on the basis of cost of replacing the goods at the time they are sold.
The important principle is that current costs must be matched with current revenues. As for sales are concerned, it is current revenue and out of the costs, all operating expenses are current costs.
But in case of inventories, certain adjustments will have to be made, known as cost of sales adjustment.

20. Cost of sales adjustment can be calculated with the help of the following formula:

21. (ii) Depreciation Adjustment :
Under CCA method, assets are shown in the balance sheet on Current Replacement Costs after allowing for depreciation.
This will require an adjustment in Depreciation also.
Formula:

22. (iii) Backlog Depreciation:
Whenever an asset is revalued, the profit on revaluation is transferred to Revaluation Reserve Account. But, the revaluation also gives rise to backlog depreciation. This backlog depreciation should be charged to Revaluation Reserve Account.
(iv) Monetary Working Capital Adjustment (MWCA):
Working capital is that part of capital which is required to meet the day to day expenses and for holding current assets for the normal operations of the business. It is referred to as the excess of current assets over current liabilities. The changes in the price levels disturb the working capital position of a concern.
CCA method requires a financing adjustment reflecting the effects of changing prices on net monetary items, leading to a loss from holding net monetary assets or to a gain from holding net monetary liabilities when prices are rising, and vice-versa, in order to maintain the monetary working capital of the enterprise. This adjustment reflects the amount of additional finance needed to maintain the same working capital due to the changes in price levels. The method of calculating MWCA is the same as that of COSA.

23. Symbolically :

24. (v) Current Cost Operating Profit:
Current cost operating profit is the profit as per historical cost accounting before charging interest and taxation but after charging adjustments of cost of sales, depreciation and monetary working capital.
(vi) Gearing Adjustment:
During the period of rising prices, shareholders are benefitted to the extent fixed assets and net working capital are financed while the amount of borrowings to be repaid remains fixed except interest charges.
In the same manner, there is a loss to the shareholders in the period of falling prices.
To adjust such profit or loss on account of borrowings, ‘gearing adjustment’ is required to be made. ‘Gearing adjustment’ is also a financing adjustment like COSA and MWCA.
This adjustment reduces the total adjustment for cost of sales, depreciation and monetary working capital in the proportion of finance by borrowings to the total financing.

25. ADVANTAGES OF PRICE LEVEL ACCOUNTING:
In the past few years of high inflation, companies have reported very high profits on the one hand but on the other they have faced real financial difficulties.
This is so because in reality dividends and taxes have been paid out of capital due to overstated figures of profits arrived at by adopting historical cost concept.
Thus a change from historical cost concept to price level or inflation accounting has been recommended.

26. The major advantages of Inflation Accounting are as follows:
(1) It enables company to present more realistic view of its profitability because current revenues are matched with current costs. (2) Depreciation charged on current values of assets in inflation accounting further enables a firm to show accounting profits more nearer to economic profits and replacement of these assets when required. (3) It enables a company to maintain its real capital by avoiding payment of dividends and taxes out of its capital due to inflated profits in historical accounting. (4) Balance Sheet reveals a more realistic and true and fair view of the financial position of a concern because the assets are shown at current values and not on distorted values as in historical accounting.

27. (5) When financial statements are presented, adjusted to the price level changes, it makes possible to compare the profitability of two concerns set up at different times. (6) Investors, employees and the public at large are not misled by inflated book profits because inflation accounting shows more realistic profits. Higher paper profits without adjustment for price level changes cause resentment among workers and they demand higher wages and also excessive profits attract new entrepreneurs to enter the business. Inflation accounting helps in avoiding further competition from prospective entrepreneurs. (7) The financial statements prepared by a company adjusted to the price level changes also improve its social image. (8) Inflation accounting also affects the investment market as it helps to establish a realistic price for the shares of a company.

28. DISADVANTAGES OF PRICE LEVEL ACCOUNTING:
Some people are of the opinion that inflation accounting may create more problems than solving them because of the following: (1) Adjusting accounts to price level changes is a never-ending process. It involves constant changes and alterations in the financial statements. (2) Price level accounting involves many calculations and makes financial statements so complicated and confusing that it becomes very difficult for man of ordinary prudence to understand, analyze and interpret them.

29. (3) The concept of price level accounting appears to have more theoretical importance than practical because adjusting the accounts to the changes in the price levels may lead to window dressing of accounts due to the element of subjectivity in it. People may adjust the accounts according to the values most suited to them, thereby, making the financial statements more inaccurate. (4) Depreciation charged on current values of fixed assets is not acceptable under the Income Tax Act, 1961 and hence adjusting it to price level changes does not serve any practical purpose. (5) During deflation, when the prices are falling, adjustments of accounts to price level changes will mean charging lesser depreciation and overstatement of profits.

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