1. Objectives After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
describe how the five themes geographers use to help explain what a place is like and why. 
explain how landforms, waterways, climate, and natural resources have shaped history. 
discuss why legends are important to the study of history. 
summarize how archaeology helps scientists learn about ancient civilizations.
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Chapter Focus 2

2. Objective 2 - Land, Water, and Climate
Three of the things geographers study: land, water, and climate. 
Landforms
Land covers about 30 percent of the surface of the earth. 
landforms - natural features of the earth’s land surface. 
Geographers describe each landform by:
elevation - height above sea level 
relief - change in height 
Section 2-1

3. Landforms (cont.) elevation - height above sea level
relief - change in height 
Section 2-3

4. Landforms (cont.) Four main kinds of landforms: 
Mountains are the highest of the world’s landforms and generally have high relief. 
Hills are lower than mountains and generally have moderate relief. 
Plateaus are raised areas of flat or almost flat land that can vary in elevation. Most of them have low relief. 
Plains are large areas of low lying, flat or gently rolling, land with low relief.
Section 2-3

5. Surface Changes From Inside the Earth
The land surface of the earth is constantly changing, usually from heat and pressure. 
The inside of the earth is made up of three separate layers. 
At the center of the earth is the core. 
Around the core is the mantle, which is made up mostly of hot, solid rock. 
Floating on the melted upper part of the mantle is a thin layer of rock, sand, and soil called the crust.
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Section 2-4

6. Surface Changes From Inside the Earth (cont.)
Heat from the core causes the rock in the mantle to rise, putting pressure on the crust and causing it to move. 
In recent years, scientists have come to believe that the crust does not move in one piece but in separate sections called tectonic plates. 
The movement of the plates explains what geographers call continental drift. 
Plate movement also creates volcanoes.
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Section 2-5

7. Surface Changes From Inside the Earth (cont.)
When tectonic plates slide past one another they can cause earthquakes, or sudden shifts in the earth’s crust. 
The tectonic plates are still moving.
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Section 2-6

8. Surface Changes From Outside the Earth
Three main forces from outside the earth that cause changes on its surface are wind, water, and ice. 
All three reshape the land by a process called erosion, in which rock and soil are moved from one place on the earth’s surface to another. 
Four times in the last 500,000 years, during what are called the Ice Ages, great ice sheets called glaciers spread out from the North and South poles.
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Section 2-7

9. Landforms in History
All through history, landforms have played an important part in helping people decide where to live. 
People settled mostly in plains and hilly areas where the soil was rich enough for crops to grow. 
Landforms also have made a big difference in the political relationships of people.
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Section 2-8

10. Waterways
About 70 percent of the earth's surface is covered with water. 
Oceans - the largest waterways in the world are the four oceans—the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian, and the Arctic. 
Seas - smaller bodies of salt water, usually partly surrounded by land
Lakes - bodies of water that are completely surrounded by land
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Section 2-9

11. Waterways (cont.)
Rivers - waterways that empty into another body of water. 
River system – a river and all the streams that flow into it make up a river system.
Nile River System – largest in the world
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Section 2-10

12. Waterways in History
Bodies of water - provided travel and trade, drinking water, and irrigation for crops.
River valleys - sites for villages and cities.
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Section 2-11

13. Wind in History Wind - both useful and destructive
Can transport great amounts of sediment
Loess (les) - in China, winds transported rich soil, from deserts to plains where wheat is grown
Dust Bowl - in the U.S in the 1930s wind transported soil away from the plains
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Section 2-11

14. Climate and the Sun
Climate - the pattern of weather of a place over many years. 
Sun - provides the earth with heat and light.
Earth’s Rotation - spins like a top. 
Axis - an imaginary line that runs through the earth’s center from the North Pole to the South Pole.
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Section 2-12

15. Climate and the Sun (cont.)
Orbit - earth moves around the sun in an almost circular path. 
Revolution /4 days to complete. 
Seasons – caused by the combination of earth’s revolution and the tilt of its axis.
Section 2-13

16. Climate Zones Latitude - distance north or south of the equator
Determines the amount of heat from the sun a place receives
Climate zones – Three zones based on latitude
Tropical zone - the area between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
Section 2-14

17. Climate Zones (cont.) Temperate zone
Northern Hemisphere – between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle
Southern Hemisphere – between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle
Polar zone - north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle.
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Section 2-15

18. Climate, Water, and Wind Climate - shaped by large bodies of water.
Keeps the temperature of a place from getting too hot or too cold.
Ocean current - ocean water that flows in a steady stream.
Climate - shaped by the movement of air.
Prevailing winds because they blow from a certain direction almost all of the time. 
Section 2-16

19. Books – Page 17

20. Climate and Altitude Higher the altitude - cooler the climate. 
Precipitation–the falling of moisture such as rain or snow. 
Adiabatic cooling - As the air rises over mountains, it cools and drops its moisture.
Section 2-17

21. Climate in History
Climate helps determine nearly every aspect of a civilization including where people live and what kinds of crops are grown.
Give examples of how climate affected history…..
Section 2-18

22. Homework – p. 19, problems 1, 3, 5

23. Natural Resources Natural resources - materials found in nature.
Natural resources help people live better lives.
Essential for life - air, water, soil, and sunlight
Others - minerals, fossil fuels, forests, and animal life
Section 3-1

24. Kinds of Natural Resources (cont.)
Natural resources become valuable only when people learn how to use them.
Nonrenewable resources - cannot be replaced as they are used.
Renewable resources - replaced as they are used.
Minerals - nonliving substances found beneath the earth’s surface. 
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Section 3-3

25. Natural Resources in History
Natural resources affected the location and growth of settlements all through history. 
Asians and Europeans came into contact with one another partly because Europeans wanted the silks and spices of Asia that had been cultivated. 
Modern industry started in countries that had large amounts of coal and iron ore for making steel.
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Section 3-4

26. End of Section 3