2. Forms of Political Participation
Lobbying is the strategy by which organized interests seek to influence the passage of legislation by exerting direct pressure on members of the legislature.
Public relations is the attempt, usually through the use of paid consultants, to establish a favorable relationship with the public and influence its political opinions.
Litigation is the attempt to use the courts to achieve a political goal
Protest is a form of political participation that involves assembling crowds to confront a government or other official organization.

5. The Practice and Privilege of Voting
In practice, citizen participation in the United States is limited to voting and other electoral activities such as campaigning. However, American voter turnout (the percentage of eligible individuals who actually vote) is relatively low.
Electoral participation studies show turnout has declined. These studies also conclude that the least well off Americans are least likely to participate and the most advantaged are likeliest to vote.

7. Voter Turnout By Income Chart

9. Who Participates and How
Participation and New Technologies
African Americans
Latinos
Asian Americans
Women vs Men
Religious Identity and Politics
Age and Participation

11. Explaining Political Participation
Participation is higher among those with more education and money.
Socioeconomic Status: Individual characters explain participation levels. Survey results show that Americans with higher socioeconomic status participate much more in politics than those with lower socioeconomic status.
Civic Engagement: Civic Engagement is the sense of concern among members of the political community about public, social, and political life, expressed through participation in social and political organizations.
Participation depends on three elements: resources (time, money, and know how), civic engagement (Are you concerned about public issues, and do you feel you can make a difference?), and recruitment (Are you asked to participate by someone you know?).

12. Formal Obstacles and Political Mobilization
Formal obstacles can greatly decrease participation. Important political factors reducing voter turnout are registration and voting requirements.
Most American states require citizens to register well in advance prior to the election. Elections are held on working days.
The process by which large numbers of people are organized for a political activity is called political mobilization. The most significant factor affecting participation is whether people are mobilized by parties, candidates, interest groups, and social movements.
Half the drop-off in American participation can be attributed to reduced mobilization efforts.

13. Elections in America and Types of Elections
American elections are held at regular intervals. Presidential elections are held on the first Tuesday in November every four years. Congressional elections are held on the same day every two years, some being midterm elections (congressional elections not coinciding with presidential elections, also called off year elections).
Primary Elections
Closed Primary
Open Primary
General Election
Some states also provide the following voting opportunities:
a. Referendum: the practice of referring a measure proposed laws or actions.
b. Recall: procedure that allows voters the opportunity to remove a elected state official from office before his or her term expires.

14. The Criteria of Winning
Majority System: a type of electoral system in which, to win a seat in the parliament or other representative body, a candidate must receive a majority of all the votes cast in the relevant district.
Plurality System: a type of electoral system in which, to win a legislative seat, a candidate need only receive the most votes in the election, not necessarily a majority of the votes cast.
Proportional Representation: a multiple member district system that allows each political party representation in proportion to its percentage of the total vote. In European elections, a party is awarded legislative seats in proportion to the amount of votes the party won.

15. Example of Proportional Representation
U.S. House of Representatives has 100 total seats.
The Republicans get 42% of the popular vote, the Democrats get 26%, the Libertarians get 20%, and the Green Party gets 12%, total 100%
The results: Republicans get 42 seats, Democrats get 26 seats, Libertarians get 20 seats, and the Greens get 12 seats, totaling 100 seats.

16. Electoral College
The Electoral College is made up of the presidential electors from each state, who meet after the popular election to cast ballots for president and vice president. This is a product of indirect elections, where voters choose an intermediate body to select public officials.
On Election Day, American voters do not vote directly for their president. Instead, they choose electors selected by the state’s party to support and cast their vote for the party’s presidential candidate (except in Maine and Nebraska, where one electoral vote goes to the winner in each congressional district and two electoral votes go to the winner statewide).
There are 538 electoral votes.

18. Election Campaigns
Campaigns are efforts made by political candidates and their staffs to win the backing of donors, political activists, and voters in the quest for political office. Campaigns precede primary and general elections. Campaigns consist of a number of steps, including first organizing groups to raise funds and gain media attention.
Advisers
Polling
Primaries

19. Presidential Elections
The major party presidential nominations follow a pattern this is quite different from the nominating process for other political offices. The presidential nominating process includes primary elections, but these are different from those for other political offices. In some years, especially when an incumbent president is running for re-election, one party’s nomination may not even be contested.
Open Caucuses/Primaries
Closed Caucuses/Primaries
Nominating Conventions
Presidential Debates

21. How Voters Decide
The ultimate decision is made by the voters. There are three factors that influence voters’ decisions at the polls: partisan loyalty, issue and policy concerns, and candidate characteristics.
Partisan Loyalty
Issues
Economy
Candidate Characteristics

23. Money and Politics
Modern national political campaigns are fueled by enormous amounts of money. In a national race, millions of dollars are spent on media time, on public opinion polls, and on media consultants.
Sources of Campaign Funds
Individual Donors
Political Action Committees
The Candidates
527 Committees
Political Parties
Public Funding