1. Prenatal Care and Adaptations to Pregnancy
Chapter 4
Prenatal Care and Adaptations
to Pregnancy
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2. Phases of Pregnancy (p. 44)
Antepartum
Before birth (prenatal)
Intrapartum
During birth
Postpartum
After birth
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3. Prenatal Care Providers (p. 44)
Obstetricians
Family practice physicians
Certified nurse midwives (CNMs)
Nurse practitioners
The pregnant woman can select from a variety of prenatal health care providers to manage her pregnancy.
The individualized needs of the woman, her family, and the unborn baby will determine the best source of health care during the pregnancy.
Geographic location might determine the availability of the various health care providers.
Discuss the availability of the different prenatal care providers in the local community.
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4. Major Goals of Prenatal Care (p. 45)
Ensure a safe birth for mother and child by promoting good health habits and reducing risk factors
Teach health habits that may be continued after pregnancy
Educate in self-care for pregnancy
Provide physical care
Prepare parents for the responsibilities of parenthood
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5. Prenatal Visits (p. 45)
Ideally, prenatal care should begin prior to the pregnancy to assist the woman in being in optimal health prior to conception.
The gestation of the woman at the first prenatal care visit will vary.
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6. Preconception Care (p. 45)
Identifies risk factors that may be changed before conception
Reduce their negative impact on outcome of pregnancy
Ensure good nutritional state and immunizations
Ensure adequate intake of folic acid
To prevent neural tube defects in developing fetus
What factors should be addressed prior to conception to improve the pregnancy’s outcome?
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7. Prenatal Care (p. 45) Complete history and physical
Identify problems that may affect the woman and her developing fetus
Ensure healthy pregnancy and delivery of healthy infant
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8. Components of Prenatal Health History (p. 45)
Obstetric
Menstrual
Contraceptive
Medical and surgical
Woman’s family
Partner’s family
Both woman’s and partner’s history to identify risk factors
Psychosocial
Obstetric history includes the number and outcomes of past pregnancies.
Menstrual history information focuses on the woman’s past cycles.
What questions will facilitate collection of data in this area?
The information related to contraceptive history focuses on the methods that have been used. If these methods were taken prior to the pregnancy being confirmed, it will be important to determine when.
Ensure the woman’s confidentiality during the interview process.
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9. Physical Examination Objectives (p. 45)
Evaluate the woman’s general health
Determine baseline weight and vital signs
Evaluate nutritional status
Identify current physical/social problems
Determines the estimated date of delivery (EDD)
The initial physical examination will be comprehensive. Future visits will focus on specific problems and as dictated by gestation of the pregnancy.
Collection of baseline data provides tools to assess and pinpoint the onset of problems as they occur.
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10. Pelvic Examination Objectives (p. 45)
Evaluate the size, adequacy, and condition of the pelvis and reproductive organs
Assess for signs of pregnancy
The first examination by the physician includes a comprehensive pelvic assessment.
What signs of pregnancy might be noted during the pelvic examination?
Discuss the frequency and repetition of the pelvic examination.
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11. Recommended Schedule of Prenatal Visits—Uncomplicated Pregnancy (p. 46)
Conception to 28 weeks—every 4 weeks
29 to 36 weeks—every 2 to 3 weeks
37 weeks to birth—weekly
Certain laboratory and/or diagnostic tests are performed at various times throughout the pregnancy
See Table 4-1 (p. 46)
Complications or concerns of the mother or health care provider necessitate a modified schedule.
The activities of each visit will be determined by the gestation of the pregnancy and the presence of health concerns or alterations.
Review the role of the nurse during the prenatal care visits.
What scenarios might require more frequent prenatal visits?
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12. Safety Alert (p. 46)
Early and regular prenatal care is important for reducing the number of low-birthweight infants born and for reducing morbidity and mortality for both mothers and newborns
How can nurses strive to reduce the number of low-birthweight infants and the rates of morbidity and mortality for mothers and newborns?
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13. Routine Assessments at Each Prenatal Visit (pp. 46-47)
Risk factors: review known and assess for new
Vital signs and weight: determine if gain is normal
Urinalysis: protein, glucose, and ketone levels
Blood glucose screening
Fundal height: fetal growth/amniotic fluid volume
Leopold’s maneuvers: assess presentation/position
Fetal heart rate
Nutrition intake
Any discomforts or problems since last visit
Each care initiative performed must be accompanied by an explanation.
The time spent during the physical examination and data collection provides an optimal opportunity for assessing the educational needs of the pregnant woman.
What information should be provided to the patient concerning the urine collection completed at each visit?
What questions will assist the nurse in obtaining the maximum amount of information during the data collection?
What types of questions should be avoided?
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14. Vaginal Discharge During Pregnancy (p. 47)
Bacterial vaginosis is most common
Caused by
Decrease in lactobacilli
Increase in bacteroids and other anaerobic microorganisms
May be milky-white discharge
No other clinical symptoms may be present
Has been associated with preterm labor
The hormonal changes of pregnancy promote changes in the vaginal environment.
The hormonal changes could be associated with increased reports of discharge and the presence of vaginal infection.
During the pregnancy, the woman must receive the needed educational tools concerning the appropriate signs and symptoms to report.
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15. Role of the Nurse During Prenatal Care (p. 47)
Collecting data from the pregnant woman
Identifying and reevaluating risk factors
Educating in self-care
Providing nutrition counseling
Promoting family adaptation to pregnancy
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16. Terms Related to Pregnancy (p. 47)
Gravida
Nulligravida
Primigravida
Multigravida
Para
Primipara
Multipara
Nullipara
Abortion
Gestational age
Fertilization age
Age of viability
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17. Determining the Estimated Date of Delivery (pp. 47-48)
Average pregnancy is 40 weeks (280 days) after first day of LNMP, plus or minus 2 weeks
Nägele’s rule
Identify first day of LNMP
Count backward 3 months
Add 7 days
Update year, if applicable
See Box 4-2 (p. 48).
The date of delivery will be determined by Nägele’s rule, which is calculated by subtracting 3 months and adding 7 days to the last normal menstrual period.
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18. Question 1
Determine EDD using Nägele’s rule for a woman whose LMP began on June 7 and ended on June 12.
March 14
March 19
March 5
March 1
Answer: 1
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19. Trimesters (p. 48) Pregnancy divided into three 13-week parts
Important to know what occurs during each trimester to both woman and fetus
Helps provide anticipatory guidance
Identify deviations from the expected pattern of development
What are potential topics of interest to the pregnant woman for each trimester?
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20. Presumptive Signs of Pregnancy (p. 48)
Amenorrhea
Nausea
Breast tenderness
Deepening pigmentation
Urinary frequency
Fatigue and drowsiness
Quickening
Presumptive signs of pregnancy are those which are frequently associated with pregnancy, but they could be attributed to many other phenomena as well.
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21. Probable and Positive Signs of Pregnancy (pp. 49-50)
Goodell’s sign
Chadwick’s sign
Hegar’s sign
McDonald’s sign
Abdominal enlargement
Braxton Hicks contractions
Ballottement/fetal outline
Abdominal striae
Positive pregnancy test
Audible fetal heartbeat
Fetal movement felt by examiner
Ultrasound visualization of fetus
Probable signs are associated with pregnancy and can be evidenced by an examiner. Probable signs, like presumptive signs, can be associated with other situations.
Positive signs can only be associated with the presence of pregnancy.
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22. Normal Physiological Changes in Pregnancy (p. 51)
Pregnancy causes many changes in body systems:
Endocrine
Reproductive
Respiratory
Cardiovascular
Gastrointestinal
Urinary
Integumentary and skeletal
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23. Effects of Pregnancy on the Endocrine System (p. 51)
Dramatic increase in hormones affects all body systems
Essential to maintain pregnancy
Produced initially by the corpus luteum, later by the placenta
Most striking change is addition of placenta as a temporary endocrine organ
Primary role is to produce estrogen and progesterone to maintain pregnancy
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24. Effects of Pregnancy on the Reproductive System (p. 51)
Uterus
Becomes temporary abdominal organ
Capacity is 5000 mL (fetus, placenta, amniotic fluid)
Cervix
Changes in color and consistency, glands in cervical mucosa increase
Mucus plug formed to prevent ascent of organisms into uterus
Ovaries
Produce progesterone to maintain decidua (uterine lining) during first 6-7 weeks of gestation until placenta can take over task
The body undergoes numerous changes during pregnancy.
These changes can be attributed to three factors: presence of estrogen, presence of progesterone, and growth of the fetus.
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25. Effects of Pregnancy on the Reproductive System (cont.) (p. 51)
Vagina
Breasts
Increased blood supply causes it to have a bluish color
Vaginal secretions increase, pH more acidic
Higher glycogen level which promotes Candida albicans (yeast) growth
High levels of estrogen and progesterone prepare breasts for lactation
Tubercles of Montgomery secrete substance to lubricate nipples
“Premilk” is expressed and is high in protein, fat-soluble vitamins, and minerals
Low in calories, fats, and sugar
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26. Height of Fundus During Gestation (p. 51)
The height of the fundus will normally follow the milestones presented in the figure.
What factors might be associated with a fundal height that does not match the gestational age? Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), SGA, LGA, multiple gestation, and molar pregnancies
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27. Effects of Pregnancy on the Respiratory System (p. 52)
Oxygen consumption increases by 15%
Diaphragm rises ~4 cm (1.6 inches)
Causes ribs to flare
Dyspnea can occur until fetus descends into pelvis
Increased estrogen causes edema or swelling of mucous membranes of nose, pharynx, mouth, and trachea
Woman may complain of nasal stuffiness, epistaxis, and voice changes
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28. Effects of Pregnancy on the Cardiovascular System (pp. 52-53)
Blood volume increases by ~45%
Increase provides for
Exchange of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products within the placenta
Needs of expanded maternal tissue
Reserve for blood loss at birth
Pulse rate increases by 10 to 15 beats/min
The increase in the circulatory volume will peak between 32 and 34 weeks gestation.
There is a pulse rate increase during pregnancy.
During early pregnancy, the woman frequently experiences a reduction in blood pressure. What factors can be attributed to this occurrence? Reduced vascular resistance is responsible for the reduction in blood pressure.
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29. Supine Hypotension Syndrome (p. 53)
Also called aortocaval compression or vena cava syndrome
Occurs if woman lies flat on her back
Allows heavy uterus to compress inferior vena cava
Reduces blood returned to her heart
Can lead to fetal hypoxia
Symptoms
Faintness
Lightheadedness
Dizziness
Agitation
Turning to one side relieves pressure on inferior vena cava, preferably the left side
he risk of supine hypotension will increase as the pregnancy advances.
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30. Supine Hypotension Syndrome (cont.) (p. 53)
How can positioning alleviate supine hypotension syndrome?
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31. Effects of Pregnancy on the Cardiovascular System (cont.) (pp. 52-53)
Orthostatic hypotension
Palpitations
Dilutional anemia (a.k.a. pseudoanemia)
Increased clotting factors in second and third trimesters
Increases risk of thrombophlebitis
During pregnancy, the woman will normally experience orthostatic hypotension. What information should be provided to the patient concerning this condition and its management?
Blood counts obtained in the first trimester often reflect a reduction in hemoglobin. What factors could cause this occurrence?
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32. Question 2
The nurse educating a pregnant woman in her last trimester will encourage her to sleep on her side because it will:
relieve bladder pressure.
prevent hypotension.
facilitate sleep.
encourage fetal movement.
Answer: 2
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33. Effects of Pregnancy on the Gastrointestinal System (p. 54)
Growing uterus displaces stomach and intestines
Increased salivary secretions
Oral mucosa may become tender and bleed more easily
Appetite and thirst may increase
Gastric acid secretions decrease
Delayed gastric emptying and intestinal movement
Progesterone and estrogen relax muscle tone of gallbladder
Leads to retained bile salts
Can cause pruritus during pregnancy
The effects of hormones of pregnancy on the gastrointestinal system can cause the expectant mother a great deal of distress.
What types of manifestations experienced by the mother-to-be can be attributed to these factors?
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34. Compression of Abdominal Contents as Uterus Enlarges (p. 54)
Changes in the size of the enlarging uterus will cause the abdominal contents to shift.
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35. Effects of Pregnancy on the Urinary System (pp. 54-55)
Excretes waste products of woman and fetus
Glomerular filtration rate of kidneys increases
Glycosuria and proteinuria more common
Water retention due to increased blood volume and dissolving nutrients provided for fetus
Progesterone causes renal pelvis and ureters to lose tone, leads to urinary stasis
Woman more susceptible to UTIs
99% of sodium is reabsorbed, leads to fluid retention
In the first and last trimester, the woman will experience frequent urination related to pressure by the uterus on the bladder.
Additional changes in pregnancy respond to the needs of the growing fetus.
As cardiac output and the volume of circulating blood increase, the kidneys also have an increased workload. The kidneys work to filter this increased blood volume.
As the body strives to keep up with the volume, the woman might “spill” glucose and protein into the urine.
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36. Effects of Pregnancy on the Integumentary and Skeletal Systems (p. 55)
Striae
Spider nevi
Sweat and sebaceous glands become more active
To dissipate heat from woman and fetus
Posture changes
Low backaches
Relaxation of pelvic joints
Waddling gait
Change in center of gravity
Balance may become an issue
Striae (stretch marks) will fade after the pregnancy, but they will not totally disappear.
Safety education is vital to the pregnant woman. As balance changes and becomes affected, she might face difficulty with stairs and getting in and out of the bathtub.
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37. Safety Alert (p. 55)
A change in the center of gravity and joint instability because of the softening of the ligaments predispose the pregnant woman to problems with balance.
Interventions concerning safety should be part of prenatal education.
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38. Nutrition for Pregnancy and Lactation (p. 55)
Women must be educated that they are not “eating for two.”
The intake must be evaluated for both caloric content and value to the growing fetus.
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39. Nutrition Education (p. 55)
Read food labels
Eat foods that are nutrient-dense
Protein versus sugary foods
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40. Weight Gain (pp )
Women of normal weight: 25 to 35 pounds (11.5 to 16 kg)
Overweight women: 11 to 25 pounds (5 to 11.5 kg)
Obese women: 11 to 15 pounds (5 to 6.8 kg)
Multifetal pregnancy: twins—woman should gain 4 to 6 pounds in first trimester, 1½ pounds per week in second and third trimesters, for a total of 37 to 54 pounds (16.5 to 24.5 kg)
The weight gain of a woman during pregnancy is closely tied to her prepregnant status.
Women who are overweight are discouraged from dieting but are encouraged to carefully monitor their diets.
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41. Nutrition Requirements for Pregnant Women (p. 59)
Increase kCal by 300 per day, and should include
Protein—60 g/day
Calcium—1200 mg/day
Iron—30 mg/day
Folic acid—400 mcg (0.4mg)/day
Fluid intake should also increase by 8 to 10 ounces of fluid per day, with water being the primary source.
Nonwater sources of fluid are often sources of empty calories and warrant close evaluation.
Low weight gain in pregnancy is associated with preterm labor.
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42. Special Nutrition Considerations (pp. 61-62)
Pregnant adolescent
Sodium intake
Vegetarian
Pica
Lactose intolerance
Cultural preferences
Gestational diabetes mellitus
The pregnant adolescent is often faced with concerns about body image. Education is needed to ensure she is aware of her nutritional responsibilities to the fetus. When evaluating nutritional needs of the pregnant adolescent, gynecologic age must be reviewed. Gynecologic age refers to the number of years between the onset of menses and the date of conception.
Which pregnant adolescent will have the greatest nutritional needs? The shorter the gynecologic age, the greater the nutritional needs.
Although sodium intake is not totally restricted, it should be carefully considered. Identify high sodium “diet pitfalls.”
Discuss the unique concerns of vegans and methods that can be used to meet their dietary needs.
Pica is a condition in which a woman eats nonfood substances. Potential sources of intake include dirt, mud, starch, and chalk.
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43. Nutritional Requirements During Lactation (p. 62)
Caloric intake during lactation should be about 500 calories more than the nonpregnant woman’s RDA
Protein intake should be 65 mg/day
Calcium and iron intake is the same as during pregnancy
Vitamin supplements are often continued during lactation
Limit intake of caffeine and alcohol
Drugs should only be taken upon the advice of the health care provider
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44. Exercise During Pregnancy (pp. 62-63)
Maternal cardiac status and fetoplacental reserve should be the basis for determining exercise levels during all trimesters of pregnancy
It is important to assess the exercise practices of the woman
Goal of exercise during pregnancy should be maintenance of fitness, not improvement of fitness or weight loss
Women who have been exercising prior to the pregnancy are the best candidates for continuing in an approved exercise regimen.
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45. Basic Factors Related to Exercise and Pregnancy (pp. 62-65)
Elevated temperature: can impact fetal circulation and cardiac function
Hypotension: can reduce blood flow to the fetus
Cardiac output: peripheral pooling decreases cardiac reserves for exercise
Hormones: changes in oxygen consumption and epinephrine, glucagon, cortisol, prolactin, and endorphin levels
Other factors: moderate exercise has many benefits—more positive self-image, a decrease in musculoskeletal discomfort during pregnancy, and a more rapid return to prepregnant weight after delivery
The maternal temperature should not exceed 100.4° F.
What activities are restricted in pregnancy due to their potential to elevate the mother’s body temperature? Hot tubs and saunas are to be avoided.
Maternal exposure to elevated temperatures during the pregnancy has been associated with miscarriage and neural tube defects.
Safety concerns mandate the type of exercise recommended for pregnancy. Certain positions can cause supine hypotension syndrome or promote orthostatic hypotension. What activities could be associated with these concerns?
During pregnancy, the length of continuous time spent exercising must be evaluated. Prolonged exercise sends an elevated amount of blood to the skeletal muscles. What impact does this have on the pregnancy? This increase will reduce the amount of blood being circulated to the uterus.
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46. Nursing Guidance for Exercise (p. 64)
Start with a warm-up and end with a cool-down
Do not exceed American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommendations for moderate exercise
Combined with balanced diet is beneficial
Eating 2 to 3 hours before exercise or immediately after is recommended
Avoid marked changes in depth of water (such as scuba diving) and/or altitude
Avoid becoming overheated, increase fluid intake
Intensity of exercise should be modified based on the “talk test”
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47. Travel During Pregnancy (p. 64)
Air travel generally safe
Avoid sitting for extended periods of time
Avoid locations that increase the risk of exposure to infectious diseases
Bring a copy of obstetric records
Obtain information about nearest health care facility
Encourage hand hygiene and dietary precautions
Provide the “recipe” for oral rehydration formula
Travel is safest during the second trimester. What factors about this phase make it the best one for travel?
What risks and discomforts are present in each trimester that will influence travel plans and safety?
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48. Common Discomforts in Pregnancy (pp. 65-66)
Fatigue
Nasal stuffiness
Nausea
Heartburn
Constipation
Hemorrhoids
Vaginal discharge
Backache
Varicose veins
Leg cramps
Edema of the lower extremities
What nonpharmacologic methods can help manage these discomforts?
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49. Psychosocial Adaptations to Pregnancy (p. 67)
Identifying and managing psychosocial problems is essential to the positive outcome of pregnancy
Nutritional needs and patterns relating to age, ethnicity, or financial constraints should be discussed
Pregnancy is a time of stress and change for both the pregnant woman and her family. Close observation and early intervention are vital to the prevention of problems.
The needs and concerns of each pregnant woman will vary by demographic.
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50. Impact on Mother (pp )
According to Reva Rubin, four maternal tasks the woman accomplishes during pregnancy include
Seeing safe passage for herself and her fetus
Securing acceptance of herself as a mother and for her fetus
Learning to give of self and to receive the care and concern of others
Committing herself to the child as she progresses through pregnancy
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51. Development Stage of Fatherhood (p. 69)
Announcement when pregnancy is confirmed
Acceptance results in strengthening of family
Adjustment
Focus
Active plans for participation in labor, birth process
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52. Impact on the Father (p. 68)
Cultural values influence the role of fathers because pregnancy and birth are viewed exclusively as women’s work in some cultures
The nurse should not assume that a father is uninterested if he takes a less active role in pregnancy and birth
Acceptance of the pregnancy results in strengthening of the family support system and expansion of the social network
How/why has the role of the father changed over the past few decades?
Would you share personal stories about your own delivery experiences and the role of the baby’s father or mother?
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53. Impact on the Adolescent (p. 69)
The nurse must assess the girl’s developmental and educational level, as well as her support system to best provide care for her
Consider her developmental level and the priorities typical of her age
Must cope with two of life’s most stress-laden transitions at the same time: adolescence and parenthood
Adolescence is a time of change and adjustment. The pregnant adolescent faces multiple hurdles as she transitions both developmentally and during pregnancy.
What potential concerns will most likely be experienced by the pregnant adolescent?
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54. Question 3
What would be the first priority in working with the pregnant adolescent?
Obtain substance abuse history.
Assess her attitude toward pregnancy.
Determine maturational level.
Establish a trusting relationship.
Answer: 2
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55. Impact on the Older Couple (p. 69)
Tend to adjust to the pregnancy because they are well-educated, have achieved life experiences that enable them to better cope with realities of parenthood
The “older couple” includes a first-time mother who is 35 years of age or older.
Despite their positive adaptation related to the realities of parenthood, older couples might have unique concerns. Frequently older parents are faced with being chronologically the oldest in their peer group. They might have additional health concerns and needs. Their established peer group might have different goals and activities that do not match well with a couple having a young baby.
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56. Postponement of Pregnancy Until After Age 35 (p. 69)
Effective birth control alternatives
Increasing career options for women
High cost of living
Development of fertilization techniques to enable later pregnancy
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57. Impact on the Single Mother (p. 70)
May be an adolescent or a mature woman
May have unique emotional needs
Single women who plan pregnancies often prepare for the financial and lifestyle changes
The single mother must be approached in a nonjudgmental manner by the nurse.
The role of the father with this baby must be considered in an individual manner, and the nurse must never make assumptions.
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58. Impact on the Single Father (p. 70)
May take an active interest in and financial responsibility for the child
May want to participate in plans for the child and take part in the care of the infant after it is born
His participation is sometimes rejected by the woman
How should the nurse approach the single father?
What rules will govern his involvement in the pregnancy and delivery?
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59. Impact on the Grandparents (p. 70)
May eagerly anticipate the woman’s pregnancy
Some will take a more active role in the care of the grandchild
If grandparents and expectant couple have similar views of their roles, little conflict is likely
The nurse may be able to help the new parents to understand their own parents’ reactions and help them to negotiate solutions to conflicts that are satisfactory to both generations
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60. Prenatal Education (p. 70)
Should progress according to the nursing process:
Assess the history and cultural needs
Diagnose the knowledge deficit
Plan the goals and priorities
Outcomes identification clarifies expected outcomes
Teach (intervene) the facts and rationales
Evaluate knowledge gained and goals achieved
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61. The Effect of Pregnancy and Lactation on Medication Ingestion (p. 72)
Pregnancy affects the metabolism of medications
May have subtherapeutic levels
Parenteral medications may be absorbed more rapidly due to increased cardiac output
Drugs can cross the placenta, can be passed through breast milk
The changes in drug metabolism during pregnancy require each mother to report to her health care provider all medications being taken. This accounting must include both prescription and over-the-counter medications.
Discuss the impact of hormones on medication response.
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62. FDA Pregnancy Risk Category for Drugs (p. 72)
Category A: no risk demonstrated to the fetus in any trimester
Category B: no adverse effects in animals; no human studies available
Category C: Only prescribed after risks to the fetus are considered. Animal studies have shown adverse reaction; no human studies available
Category D: Definite fetal risks, but may be given in spite of risks in life-threatening situations
Category X: Absolute fetal abnormalities. Not to be used anytime during pregnancy
When administering medications to the pregnant patient, these categories must be taken into consideration.
What actions should be taken by the nurse when adverse reactions in pregnancy are associated with a prescribed medication?
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63. Immunizations and Pregnancy (p. 72)
Live virus vaccines are contraindicated during pregnancy
Thimerosal should not be given during pregnancy due to risk of mercury poisoning
Avoid pregnancy for at least 1 month after receiving an MMR vaccine
Select immunizations are allowable during pregnancy, such as influenza vaccine and Tdap vaccine
Elsevier items and derived items © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2006 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.